2 Glossary of terms

Active management

Active management involves the asset manager composing, on the basis of analyses and assessments, a portfolio that deviates from the benchmark index established by the asset owner. The purpose of such deviations is to outperform the benchmark index. The Ministry of Finance has defined qualitative and quantitative limits for the GPFG and the GPFN, which regulate their deviations from the benchmark index. See Differential return, Actual benchmark index, Index management, Strategic benchmark index and Tracking error.

Actual benchmark index

The actual benchmark index for the GPFG and the GPFN is based on the strategic benchmark index. The strategic benchmark index specifies the allocation across asset classes and comprises a given number of securities, determined by the criteria applied by the index provider for inclusion in the index. However, since the return on asset classes develops differently, the asset class allocation of the actual benchmark index will drift from the strategic weights. In order to prevent the deviation from the strategic weights from becoming excessive, the Ministry has adopted rebalancing rules for the equity portion of the actual benchmark index. See Strategic benchmark index and Rebalancing.

The composition of the actual portfolio may deviate from that implied by the actual benchmark index, within the established asset management framework. Since the scope for deviations is fairly small, the return and risk of the Fund will largely be determined by the actual benchmark index. The actual benchmark index forms the basis for the measurement of differential return and risk assumed in asset management. See Active management, Differential return and Actual portfolio.

Actual portfolio

The term actual portfolio designates the overall investments included in the Fund. The actual portfolio will normally deviate from the benchmark index (active management). See Active management, Actual benchmark index and Strategic benchmark index.

Arithmetic return

Average arithmetic return is the mean value of all numbers in a time series of returns. It is calculated by adding up the return achieved in different time periods and dividing the sum by the number of periods. See Return and Geometric return.

Asset allocation

Asset allocation means the allocation of the assets under management across different asset classes. We distinguish between strategic asset allocation and tactical asset allocation. Strategic asset allocation expresses the asset owner’s underlying risk preferences and return expectations, and is for the Government Pension Fund expressed through the benchmark indices. Within the limits of the investment mandate, the asset manager may engage in tactical asset allocation. This entails actively choosing to deviate from the strategic asset allocation on the basis of assessments as to whether one asset class is over- or underpriced relative to another. See Asset classes.

Asset classes

Asset classes are different types or classes of financial assets. The benchmark index for the GPFG encompasses three asset classes; equities, bonds and real estate. The benchmark index for the GPFN includes two asset classes; equities and bonds. See Bond.

Bond

A bond is a tradable loan with a maturity of more than one year. Bonds are redeemed by the issuer (borrower) upon maturity, and the issuer pays interest (so-called coupon) to the bondholders over the period from issuance until maturity. Most bonds are based on a fixed nominal interest rate, i.e. the coupon is a specified predetermined amount. Bonds are available with different features, which include floating interest rate, zero coupon and redemption structure.

Capital Asset Pricing Model

The Capital Asset Pricing Model is an equilibrium model for the pricing of securities (or a portfolio of securities) with an uncertain future return. The model features a linear relationship between the expected return, in excess of a risk-free rate of interest, and the return in the overall market for risky investments.

Correlation

Correlation refers to the degree and direction of the linear interdependence between two variables. Perfectly positive correlation means that the variables always move perfectly in tandem. Zero correlation means that there is no linear interdependence. Perfect negative correlation means that the variables always move in exact opposition to each other. The risk associated with a portfolio can be reduced by diversifying the investments across several assets, unless there is perfect positive correlation between the returns on the various investments. See Diversification.

Counterparty risk

Counterparty risk is the risk of loss as the result of another contracting party not fulfilling its legal obligations. See Credit risk.

Credit risk

Credit risk is the risk of loss as the result of the issuer of a security or the counterparty to a securities trade not fulfilling its legal obligations, for example as the result of bankruptcy. See Counterparty risk.

Currency basket

The GPFG is exclusively invested in foreign securities, and thus only in securities that are traded in currencies other than Norwegian kroner. Hence, the return on the GPFG measured in Norwegian kroner will not only vary with market developments in the global securities markets, but will also vary with changes in the exchange rate between Norwegian kroner and the currencies in which the Fund is invested. However, the international purchasing power of the Fund is unaffected by developments in the Norwegian kroner exchange rate. In order to measure return independently of Norwegian kroner exchange rate developments, the return on the Fund is also measured in foreign currency. This is done on the basis of the currency basket for the Fund, which weights together the currencies included in the benchmark index.

Differential return

Differential return is the contribution made by active management to the return on the invested capital, and is measured as the difference in return between the actual portfolio and the benchmark index. A positive differential return is referred to as positive excess return, whilst a negative differential return is referred to as negative excess return. See Actual portfolio and Actual benchmark index.

Diversification

The risk associated with a portfolio may normally be reduced by including more assets in the portfolio. This is referred to as diversification, or the spreading of risk. Diversification is the main reason for spreading the benchmark index of the Government Pension Fund across several asset classes and a broad range of countries, sectors and companies. Diversification can improve the ratio between expected return and risk. See Asset classes.

Duration

Duration measures how long time it takes, on average, for the cash flows (coupons and principal) from a bond to be redeemed. The value of a bond is sensitive to interest rate changes, and such sensitivity increases with its duration. See Bond.

Emerging markets

The term emerging markets denotes the financial markets in certain countries that are not yet considered developed economies. There is no unambiguous set of criteria that defines whether a market is emerging. The classifications of index providers such as FTSE are commonly used for investments in listed stock markets. FTSE classifies emerging markets on the basis of, inter alia, gross domestic product per capita and market characteristics, such as size, liquidity and regulatory framework.

Exchange rate risk

Investments may feature a different distribution across countries and currencies than the goods and services they are intended to finance. Changes in international exchange rates will therefore influence the amount of goods and services that can be purchased. This is referred to as (real) exchange rate risk. International purchasing power parity plays a key role when it comes to measuring such exchange rate risk. See International purchasing power parity.

Expected return

Expected return is a statistical measure of the mean value in a set of all possible outcomes and is equal to the average return on an investment over a period of time if repeated numerous times. If an investment alternative has a 50 percent probability of a 20 percent appreciation, a 25 percent probability of a 10 percent appreciation and a 25 percent probability of a 10 percent depreciation, the expected return is 10 percent: (20 x 0.5) + (10 x 0.25) + (-10 x 0.25) = 10. Expected return may be calculated by way of historical return series or based on forward-looking model simulations. See Return.

Externality

Externalities are production or consumption costs or benefits that are not incurred by, or accrue to, the decision maker. An example of a negative externality is costs relating to environmental damage. The profitability of a company does not necessarily reflect the social costs of damage to the environment caused by its production. An unpriced cost means that the socio-economic cost is higher than what is paid by the producer itself. Consequently, externalities result in market failure and inefficient resource use compared to scenarios in which the full socio-economic cost is reflected in prices.

Factors

Factors influence the return on a broad range of investments. Investors may require an expected return in excess of the risk-free interest rate to accept exposure to systematic factors. This is labelled a factor premium. Known systematic factors in the stock market are market risk, size, value, momentum, liquidity and volatility. Important systematic factors in the bond market are term, credit, inflation and liquidity, with corresponding factor premiums. See Diversification and Systematic risk.

Fundamental analysis

Fundamental analysis primarily aims to analyse the factors that influence the future (expected) cash flow of an asset. A key feature of a fundamental analysis of individual stocks will be assessments relating to the income, costs and investments of the company. Fundamental analysis is used for, inter alia, the valuation of companies. Active management strategies will often involve the investor purchasing equities that are deemed to have a low valuation in the stock market relative to the fundamental value of the company. The investor therefore expects the fundamental value of the company over time to be reflected in its equity price. See Active management.

Geometric return

Geometric return (or time-weighted return) indicates the average growth rate of an investment. The more pronounced the variation in the annual return, the greater the difference between the arithmetically and the geometrically calculated return. In quarterly and annual reports, return over time is most commonly reported as geometric average. See Arithmetic return.

Index

An index comprises a set of assets defined on the basis of the selection criteria applied by the index provider, and specifies an average return for the assets included in the index. Indices are provided by securities exchanges, consultancy firms, newspapers and investment banks. They may, for example, be based on countries, regions, market value weights or sectors. If it is possible to invest in a portfolio in line with the index composition, the index is said to be investable. Such will typically be the case with highly liquid securities, like listed equities. An index of unlisted real estate developments will, on the other hand, not be investable. When an index is used as a return measure for a specific securities portfolio, it is referred to as a benchmark index. See Index management, Actual benchmark index and Strategic benchmark index.

Index management

Index management (passive management) means that the management of the assets is organised to ensure that the return on the actual portfolio reflects the return on the benchmark index to the maximum possible extent. If the composition of the actual portfolio is identical to the composition of the benchmark index, the return on the actual portfolio will be equal to the return on the benchmark index, apart from transaction costs and before the deduction of management costs. If the benchmark index includes most of the securities traded in the market, index management will achieve a return that reflects the return on the market as a whole. The return resulting from a broad market exposure is often termed beta return. See Index, Actual benchmark index and Strategic benchmark index.

Inflation

Inflation is an increase in the general price level of the economy.

Inflation risk

Inflation risk is the risk of a loss of purchasing power as the result of unexpectedly high inflation. See Inflation.

Institutional investor

Institutional investors are organisations set up for the purpose of engaging in investment activities, typically on behalf of clients. Institutional investors will typically manage large portfolios, divided into several asset classes and geographical markets. Examples of institutional investors are pension funds, insurance companies, securities funds and sovereign wealth funds. Banks and hedge funds may also be classified as institutional investors.

International purchasing power parity

If a broad range of goods costs the same when converted into a common currency, irrespective of which country the goods are manufactured in and which currency the goods are originally priced in, international purchasing power parity is said to exist. A consensus has over time evolved among many researchers that international purchasing power parity applies in the long run. Purchasing power parity plays a key role in the measurement of foreign exchange risk. If the cost of goods is the same irrespective of location, it does not matter from where one purchases such goods. Consequently there is no foreign exchange risk. See Exchange rate risk.

Investability

By investability is meant the extent to which an investment idea or rule can be implemented in operational asset management.

Liquidity premium

Liquidity premium is an expected compensation for investing in securities that are not readily tradable. The compensation is paid to enable the execution of a desired trade. In practice, liquidity premiums are difficult to define and measure. See Risk premiums.

Market efficiency

Market efficiency implies that the price of a financial asset, such as an equity or a bond, at all times reflects all the available information on the fundamental value of such asset. If this hypothesis is correct, it will be impossible for a manager to consistently achieve an excess return through fundamental analysis. See Active management and Fundamental analysis.

Market risk

Market risk is the risk that the value of a securities portfolio will change as the result of broad movements in the market prices of equities, currencies, commodities and credit. It is normally assumed that higher market risk is accompanied by a higher expected return. See Expected return.

Market value weights

A portfolio or index is market value weighted when investments in each individual asset are included with a weight corresponding to such asset’s proportion of the overall value of the market. See Index.

Negative excess return

See Differential return.

Nominal return

Achieved return measured in nominal prices, i.e. without inflation adjustment. See Return, Inflation and Real return.

Operational risk

Operational risk is the risk of economic loss or reputational loss as the result of deficiencies in internal processes, human error, systems error or other loss caused by external circumstances that are not a consequence of the market risk in the portfolio. There is no expected return linked to operational risk. However, in managing operational risk, one must balance the need to keep the probability of such losses low against the costs incurred as a result of increased control, monitoring, etc.

Passive management

See Index management.

Positive excess return

See Differential return.

Principal-agent problem

Principal-agent problems describe situations in which there is not a complete alignment of interests between the person issuing an assignment (the principal) and the person performing such assignment (the agent). In cases where there is asymmetric information on the part of the principal and the agent, the agent may make choices that are not necessarily in the interest of the principal. In the capital markets, such situations may generally arise both between the asset owner and the asset manager and between the asset manager and the senior executives of the companies in which investments are made.

Private equity

Private equity denotes investments in assets that are not listed on regulated market places.

Probability distribution

A probability distribution is a model describing the relative frequency of various values that an uncertain (stochastic) variable may assume. The best known probability distribution is the normal distribution, which is symmetric around the mean value (the expected value). Distributions that are not symmetric are often referred to as skewed. Distributions in which extreme outcomes (large or small) carry a higher probability than under the normal distribution are referred to as distributions with “fat” or “heavy” tails.

Real return

Real return is the achieved nominal return adjusted for inflation. It may also be referred to as return measured in constant prices or in terms of purchasing power. See Inflation and Nominal return.

Rebalancing

The Ministry has adopted strategic benchmark indices for the GPFG and the GPFN with a fixed equity portion and, for the GPFN, a fixed allocation across regions. Since returns develop differently in respect of each asset class and region, the equity portion of the portfolio will over time move away from the strategic portion. The Fund therefore has an actual benchmark index, which is permitted to deviate somewhat from the strategic allocation, as well as rules on the rebalancing of the index. In the case of deviations exceeding pre-set limits, the necessary assets are purchased and sold to bring the actual benchmark index into conformity with the strategic benchmark index. See Actual benchmark index and Strategic benchmark index.

Relative return

See Differential return.

Return

Historical return is calculated as the change in market value from one specific date to another, and is often referred to as absolute return. See Arithmetic return, Geometric return, Differential return and Expected return.

Risk

Risk is a measure that provides some indication as to the probability of an event occurring and the consequences thereof (for example in the form of losses or gains). There are various aspects to risk. One important aspect is the distinction between risk that can be quantified and risk that is difficult to quantify. An example of the former is the market risk associated with investments in the securities market. An example of the latter is the operational risk inherent in a portfolio. Standard deviation is one common way of quantifying risk. See Market risk, Operational risk, Credit risk, Systematic risk and Standard deviation.

Risk premium

See Risk factors.

Standard deviation

Standard deviation is a measure often used to express portfolio risk. It indicates how much the value of a variable (here the portfolio return) can be expected to fluctuate around its mean. The standard deviation of a constant value will be 0. The higher the standard deviation, the larger the fluctuations (volatility) or risk relative to the average return. Linking the standard deviation to a probability distribution sheds light on the probability of a portfolio decreasing in value by more than x percent or increasing in value by more than y percent during a given period.

If normally distributed, the probability of returns deviating from the average return by less than one standard deviation is 68 percent. In 95 percent of the cases, the return will deviate by less than two standard deviations. Empirical studies of returns in the securities markets indicate that very low and very high returns occur more frequently than would be expected if the rates of return were normally distributed. This phenomenon is called “fat tails”. See Probability distribution and Risk.

Strategic benchmark index

The overarching investment strategy of the Ministry for the Government Pension Fund is expressed through strategic benchmark indices for the GPFN and the GPFG, respectively. The strategic benchmark index specifies a fixed allocation of fund assets across the various asset classes and, as far as the GPFN is concerned, also a fixed allocation across regions. The strategic benchmark index is a detailed description of the asset allocation. See Asset allocation and Asset classes.

Systematic risk

Systematic risk refers to the risk in a security or portfolio that cannot be diversified away by holding more securities.

Systematic risk reflects the inherent uncertainty of the economy. Investors cannot diversify away from recessions, lack of access to credit or liquidity, market collapse, etc. According to financial theory, higher systematic risk will be compensated in the form of higher expected returns. See Diversification and Risk factors.

Tracking error

The asset owner will normally define limits as to how much risk the asset manager may take. A common method is to define a benchmark index, together with limits as to how much the actual portfolio may deviate from the benchmark index. The Ministry of Finance has defined limits, in the mandates of Norges Bank and Folketrygdfondet, in the form of a target for the expected tracking error, which is the expected standard deviation of the differential return between the actual portfolio and the benchmark index. Over time, and under certain statistical assumptions, this means that if the entire limit is utilised, the actual return will in two out of three years deviate from the return on the actual benchmark index by less than the defined limit, as expressed in percentage points. See Active management, Differential return, Actual portfolio, Actual benchmark index and Standard deviation.

Volatility

Return variations. Measured by standard deviation. See Standard deviation.