2 Historical frameworks and guidelines for international student mobility

2.1 Political frameworks

2.1.1 The Bologna Process

The Bologna Process is an all-European process encompassing 48 European countries, the European Commission and all the central higher education organisations in Europe. The process was neither initiated by nor is led by the EU, but all the EU member states are participating, and the European Commission is a key member that contributes both in terms of content and financially. Through joint decisions, the member states are working to reform their higher education systems to make it easier for staff and students to move between European higher education institutions. The goal is not a single, common education policy for all countries, but rather to make it easier to compare the different national systems. The decisions that the ministers make at ministerial meetings, and which are enshrined in communiqués, are considered binding on each country and for the individual minister to follow up. One outcome of the Bologna process was the establishment of the European Higher Education Area (EHEA) by the European ministers at the ministerial meeting in 2010, as an area with comparable higher education systems with the aim, among others, of facilitating student and staff mobility across borders.

Increased student and staff mobility has been a key goal of the Bologna Process from the outset, and all the communiqués from ministerial meetings have included requirements and targets for the work on increasing student mobility. It has, among other things, been agreed that mobility should be encouraged and promoted in study programmes at all three levels of higher education (first degree, second degree and doctoral), and that the institutions should make better use of mobility windows, joint degrees and joint study programmes. It must be possible for students to take their educational grants and loans across national borders, the recognition systems are to be improved, and particular attention should be paid to mobility in teacher education. The introduction of a comparable degree structure with three levels: usually a three-year bachelor’s degree, a two-year master’s degree and a three-year doctoral degree, has been essential to facilitate and ultimately increase student mobility.1 A comparable degree structure makes it easier to understand both the level and the content of qualifications from a foreign educational institution.

The introduction of a system of credits, primarily the European Credit Transfer System (ECTS), has made it easier to compare education from different European countries, greatly simplifying the recognition process. This has, in turn, made it easier for students in higher education to move between countries. The introduction of the European Qualifications Framework for Higher Education and the concurrent commitment that all EHEA countries should develop and implement national qualification frameworks has also been an important step towards easier recognition of qualifications and thus student mobility.

The students’ ability and right to take their national educational grants and loans across borders to study abroad (“portability”) has been considered another key instrument for increasing student mobility. This has been stated as a commitment in the communiqués from the Bologna Process since the outset. There is a large degree of variance within the EHEA in terms of the portability of student grants and loans, and many of the countries have restrictions. Norwegian student funding is very good by European standards, with few restrictions.2

Another central element in the Bologna Process has been the development of the international cooperation on quality assurance of higher education, and the subsequent requirements to establish national systems for quality assurance. Particularly important was the adoption of Standards and Guidelines for Quality Assurance in the European Higher Education Area (ESG) at the Ministerial Meeting held in Bergen in 2005.3 The development of cooperation regarding quality assurance has had a major impact on the different countries’ confidence that the education in other countries is of a sufficiently high standard. The fact that institutions can be sure of the quality of the study programmes at their partner institutions is essential for institutional cooperation, which is in turn an important prerequisite for increased student mobility.

Although the countries in the Bologna Process have agreed to introduce a number of structures for the EHEA, in part to facilitate student mobility, it is a challenge that not all the countries have introduced nationally what have been agreed on at the European level. This entails a risk of not having a real European Higher Education Area where the degree systems are compatible and comparable, where education is adequately quality assured, and where education is recognised across national borders. This, in turn, can be an obstacle to student mobility. As an example, it can be mentioned that although it has been agreed to introduce a common degree structure in the EHEA with three main levels, it remains a problem in terms of mobility that almost all the countries have integrated master’s level degree programmes in disciplines such as medicine, dentistry, pharmacy, architecture and veterinary science, and to a lesser extent also in engineering, law, theology and teacher education. These integrated programmes make it virtually impossible for students to take their bachelor’s degree in one country and the master’s degree in another, since the education is not divided into two separate degree cycles. This prevents student mobility between the educational levels. Norway is one of the countries with the highest number of these kinds of integrated master’s degrees, and it is important to be aware of the obstacles this entails for degree mobility in these disciplines.

In order to intensify the work on student mobility, in 2009 the ministers set a target that by 2020, at least 20 per cent of graduates in the European Higher Education Area should have had a study or training period abroad.

In 2012, the EHEA ministers adopted Mobility for better learning, a dedicated strategy for mobility in the European Higher Education Area towards 2020.4 Here, the countries committed to implement various measures related to, among other things, balanced mobility (balance in the number of inbound and outbound students, and in this context in particular geographical balance in student flows in Europe), implementation of national mobility strategies, improved information, etc.

The decisions in the various communiqués from the Bologna Process and the measures in the mobility strategy have been and continue to act as a guideline for Norway’s work on student mobility.

2.1.2 European cooperation

The EU is the main arena for international cooperation for Norway’s higher education institutions. Participating in this arena is an important priority for the Government, and large sums are invested each year in measures to facilitate student exchanges, institutional cooperation, internationalisation and research cooperation. European cooperation in higher education is increasing and evolving. This work is fundamental to the efforts to further strengthen the quality, relevance and attractiveness of the Norwegian education system.

Participation in the EU programme for education, training, youth and sport for the period 2014–2020 (Erasmus+) is one of the main instruments for achieving Norway’s political goals in this area and is thus also an important part of Norway’s education policy.5 Since the early 1990s, approximately 30,000 Norwegian students have been on an international exchange through the Erasmus programme. Participation in this programme has also provided Norwegian higher education institutions with access to an extensive network of European partners. Erasmus+ is discussed further in chapter 6.

The Lisbon Process from March 2000 marked the first time that education was fully included as a fundamental element in policy development at the European level. The new governance instrument at the EU level was called the open method of coordination (OMC). The current overarching strategic framework for the OMC process in the area of education is Education and Training 2020. Norway’s education cooperation has therefore increased considerably in both scope and importance since 2000, although the sector remains exclusively a matter of national competence. Norway participates in this cooperation on the basis of the EEA Agreement, and the funding is taken from the programme funds for EU educational programmes.

In this strategic framework, in the same way as in the Bologna Process, a benchmark has been set that by 2020 at least 20 per cent of higher education graduates in the EU should have had a period of higher education-related study or training (including work placements) abroad. At the last report, the average for the EU indicated that only 11.6 per cent of the students who graduated in 2017 had participated in a learning period abroad.6 Some 3.6 per cent took a full degree in another country, while 8 per cent had a study or training period abroad. In 2018, the figure for Norway was about 16 per cent, only including students who had a study or training period abroad, i.e. excluding students who took a full degree abroad. Norway is thus well above the average for the EU countries. The EU countries with the highest rates were Luxembourg (80.5 per cent), Cyprus (36.9 per cent) and the Netherlands (24.9 per cent).

Education is a good example of an area where EU involvement is being developed both in depth and breadth. Over the past twenty years, the EU has increasingly developed policies by establishing targets and benchmarks, measuring performance, and recommending measures. This is a process in which countries participate voluntarily, and they are free to choose whether to follow the recommendations or not. Nevertheless, it has led to the EU having more opportunities to set the agenda and steer developments.

The EU has decided to establish a European Education Area by 2025. The main objectives of the European Education Area include that spending time abroad to study and learn should become the norm, school and higher education qualifications should be recognised across the EU, and knowing two foreign languages in addition to one’s mother tongue should be standard.

On 30 September 2020, the European Commission presented the report Achieving the European Education Area by 2025 on the European Education Area.7 The report deals with the entire field of education and highlights six dimensions: quality of education and training, inclusion and gender equality, green and digital transitions, teachers and trainers, higher education, and the geopolitical dimension. The report also includes a revised strategic framework for European cooperation on education, with updated objectives.

Erasmus+ is expected to play a key role in the work to achieve these political goals, with a strengthened Erasmus programme as one of the main measures. The European Education Area also has implications for the single market and the EEA, since its main aim is recognition of qualifications and free movement of workers.

2.1.3 The 2003 Quality Reform

In 2001, the Government at the time presented the Quality Reform white paper (Report no. 27 to the Storting (2000–2001) Do your duty – claim your right. Quality reform of higher education). Through the Quality Reform, Norway implemented the requirements of the Bologna Process, and student mobility and internationalisation were given higher priority.

The Quality Reform entailed major structural changes to the higher education system in Norway. A new degree structure was introduced with three-year bachelor’s degrees and two-year master’s degrees, albeit with a few exceptions.8 At the same time, requirements regarding quality assurance systems were introduced, and an independent quality assurance body was established. The reform also entailed introduction of a new funding system with a performance-based component, a new common national grading scale running from A to F, a new system of credits (using, in Norwegian, “studiepoeng” instead of “vekttall”), greater academic and administrative freedom for the institutions, and new forms of learning and teaching.

Internationalisation was a central topic of the white paper in which the reform was presented (Report no. 27 to the Storting (2000–2001)), and increased internationalisation in Norwegian universities and university colleges was emphasised. Norwegian higher education institutions were expected to participate more in international programmes and enter into international agreements at the institutional level.9 The importance of facilitating student mobility was underlined in the requirement “that all higher education institutions must be able to offer students who so wish a study period abroad as part of a degree programme.”10 The white paper also stressed the importance of developing educational opportunities in English, and that such courses ought also to be available to international students.

As a result of higher priority for internationalisation, the Norwegian Centre for International Cooperation in Higher Education (SIU)11 was established on 1 January 2004, among other things to assist the institutions in their international work and to promote internationalisation and mobility in higher education. In addition, a performance indicator for internationalisation was introduced in the new funding system. With a view to increasing student mobility, the institutions received funding, according to the performance-based funding system, for each student who went overseas on an exchange stay of at least three months’ duration through cooperation agreements, and correspondingly, also for inbound students.

2.1.4 The 2009 white paper on internationalisation

In 2009, the Government at the time presented a white paper on internationalisation (Report no. 14 to the Storting (2008–2009) Internationalisation of education in Norway).12 This white paper emphasised student mobility as an important part of the academic cooperation at the institutional level, with closer links between research and higher education, highlighting it as the desired form for future international cooperation for Norwegian higher education institutions. The internationalisation process was to be linked to the institutions’ strategic development. As a result, the institutions were to give greater priority to international cooperation that involved student exchanges, as opposed to attracting full-degree students from abroad.

At the same time, the measures proposed in the white paper entailed a focus on the quality of education, in terms of both study periods abroad and the education offered at Norwegian higher education institutions. The Government at that time set requirements that Norwegian universities and university colleges must work on becoming more attractive to international students and institutions, and that Norwegian students had to select high-quality overseas institutions to a greater extent. The Government therefore modified the educational support for tuition fees so that students were more motivated to choose high-quality studies.

The main ambition of the white paper was to increase the proportion of Norwegian exchange students and degree students abroad. Staff mobility was also to be increased. In order to enable Norwegian students to study at the best institutions abroad, additional grants were offered for studies at selected institutions. These institutions were listed on the so-called “additional grant list”, which was managed by the Norwegian State Educational Loan Fund (Lånekassen).

Another ambition presented in the white paper was that all pupils and students should encounter international perspectives, and that there should be a greater focus on such perspectives. At the same time, better information and advice was to be given on the opportunities for study periods abroad. Attention was drawn to the fact that internationalisation of education is also a matter of internationalisation at home.

2.2 Multilateral and bilateral initiatives

2.2.1 Nordic cooperation

Integration and mobility have been key objectives in the Nordic cooperation for many years, including in the Nordic Council of Ministers. The Nordic Council of Ministers’ action plan for mobility 2019–2021 sets targets for Nordic cooperation related to mobility.

The action plan’s goals for the field of education are:

• to create better conditions for recognition of education and professional qualifications

• to increase knowledge of the Nordic region and offer concrete forms of mobility, language learning and cultural exchanges

• to strengthen mutual understanding of the neighbouring Nordic languages and knowledge of the Nordic region’s societal languages

• to inform people living in the Nordic region and institutions about existing opportunities for mobility

Statistics on the number of Nordic students who took a full degree in another Nordic country between 2013 and 2017 show that Norwegian students made greater use of the offer than students from the other Nordic countries. Denmark is by far the most attractive destination for Norwegian students, with Sweden as a clear number two. In the period, the number of Norwegian full-degree students in other Nordic countries has decreased slightly, from around 3,500 to about 3,200. In total, approximately 9,200 Nordic students, study in another Nordic country each year.13

Several of the Nordic Council of Ministers’ mobility programmes, such as Nordplus and Nordic Master, enable Nordic citizens to spend a period of time in another Nordic country.

For example, 60 per cent of the funds in the Nordplus Higher Education sub-programme are earmarked for mobility, in addition to support for mobility in some of the other projects. In this sub-programme, it is primarily stable institutional networks that apply for funding for mobility activities and development projects for new students and academic staff. It is an important goal that Nordplus and Erasmus+ are compatible. Nordplus Higher Education has focused on so-called “express mobility” – shorter study or training periods abroad lasting from one week to one month. At the same time, the Nordic Council of Ministers advises the universities to apply for Erasmus+ for longer study periods abroad.

Through its two-year master’s programme, Nordic Master provides opportunities for a learning period abroad for students and academic staff. In 2018, there were 14 active programmes that received students, and four programmes that were still under development. Approximately 300 students had completed the programmes and taken final examinations, and around 1,000 students were enrolled on courses. At least three Nordic universities are establishing joint master’s programmes under the Nordic Master umbrella. This allows students to create an individual study programme, choosing the best that each university has to offer.

2.2.2 Cooperation with priority partner countries

International student mobility is also promoted through Norway’s cooperation on higher education and research with selected priority partner countries within and outside of Europe. In 2019, the following eleven countries had status as priority partners for cooperation on education and research, based on bilateral agreements, action plans and strategies at governmental level: Germany, France, the United Kingdom, the United States, Canada, Brazil, India, Japan, China, Russia and South Africa. Although the way in which cooperation is organised varies from country to country, the priorities and instruments all rest on the same underlying principles, primarily: quality, relevance, reciprocity and the building of long-term academic partnerships.

The Government holds that a better system of educational support for language learning will help encourage more people to choose education in languages other than English. Having more students studying in non-anglophone countries will ultimately serve as an instrument to strengthen Norway’s competitiveness in a globalised world. The consultation responses in connection with the work on the Panorama strategy14 indicated that better support for language courses was considered essential for Norway to achieve increased student mobility to these countries. One of the measures that the Ministry of Education and Research has implemented to motivate more students to study abroad in languages other than English is increased opportunities to receive educational support to take language courses.

2.2.2.1 Germany

The Government’s Germany strategy states that Germany is Norway’s most important partner in Europe and that the Government “will stimulate increased interest in the German language and Germany in schools and among students”. It is also stated that “Germany plays an important role in value creation in Norway, making increased knowledge about German society, language and culture important for trade and industry”.15 It is therefore a goal that more Norwegian students take all or part of their education in Germany.

The number of Norwegian students who have chosen to take all or part of their education at a German higher education institution has changed dramatically in the last 25 years. From there being about 1,000 degree students per year in the mid-1990s, this figure had more than halved by 2010, despite then counting both degree students as well as exchange students. The number has increased again slightly in recent years, reaching 611 students in the peak year of 2016. Within Erasmus+, Norwegian institutions have the most exchange partnerships with German institutions. The number of Norwegian students with a study period in Germany is still low, and there are few Norwegian students who choose to study German as a subject in higher education.

At the same time, the number of inbound students visiting Norwegian institutions from Germany is high and has risen in recent years. The balance between inbound and outbound students is particularly skewed in our collaboration with Germany, compared with other major European countries.

Since autumn 2015, the Ministry has established an action plan for its cooperation with Germany, implementing several new measures. One of these measures is extended support for language courses through the Norwegian State Educational Loan Fund (Lånekassen). The EU programmes for education and research are particularly important arenas for this bilateral cooperation.16

2.2.2.2 France

Norway’s bilateral research and education cooperation with France is diverse and has evolved over a long period of time. The first Norwegian–French agreement, the 1918 school agreement with Rouen, is one of the oldest bilateral internationalisation measures in the sector and is probably Norway’s first bilateral agreement on education. A new bilateral framework agreement for education, research, innovation and cultural cooperation was signed in autumn 2018.

The figures on higher education mobility between Norway and France show an increase in the number of French students in Norway in recent years, but a decrease in the number of Norwegian students in France. The EU programmes for education and research are particularly important arenas in Norway’s bilateral cooperation with France. Within Erasmus+, the latest figures reveal a noticeable increase in the number of inbound students coming to Norway from France, while the number of outbound students has remained stable. The overall figures are significantly lower than for English-speaking countries, but they are on par with the figures for Germany. In other words, there are some 500–600 Norwegian students either doing a full degree or a study or training period abroad in France each year.

Over the years, a number of programmes have been developed to promote education cooperation between France and Norway. These schemes are primarily intended to get more Norwegian pupils and students to choose France as a country of study and to increase competencies in French. Most are small, tailor-made schemes to enable young Norwegians to study in France without the need for advanced-level French competency at the outset. In this respect, the schemes are largely aimed at young people who would otherwise probably have chosen to study in an English-speaking country. Despite the small numbers of Norwegian students involved, the schemes help provide valuable foreign language skills and cultural expertise for Norwegian employers. Within higher education, the most important programmes are the adapted full-degree programmes for Norwegians in Toulouse, NORGINSA (engineering), and OFNEC (Office of Franco-Norwegian Exchanges and Cooperation) at Université de Caen. Norwegian academic communities at French universities also contribute to a Norwegian presence in the field of education. They are involved in translating Norwegian literature into French and contribute generally to knowledge of Norwegian culture and society in France. Norwegian is currently taught at four universities in France: Paris, Caen, Strasbourg and Lille.

2.2.2.3 North America

The United States and Canada have always been among Norway’s main partners in both higher education and research. In 2007, with a view to ensuring a strategic approach to cooperation with the USA and Canada within higher education and increasing student mobility to North America, the Ministry of Education and Research published the Ministry of Education and Research’s North America Strategy for Higher Education Cooperation 2008–2011.17 This was followed by a strategy for increased cooperation on higher education with North America for the period 2012–2015.18 Together, these strategies focused on cooperation at governmental level, the establishment of networking arenas, forging closer links between education and research, the training and the exchange of researchers and technical experts, and increased mobility for staff and students. No new strategy has been established since the last strategy expired in 2015, but several of the measures from the previous strategies still exist. This includes the Partnership Programme for North America, which is administered by the Norwegian Agency for International Cooperation and Quality Enhancement in Higher Education (Diku). The purpose of this programme is to increase cooperation with the USA and Canada and get more Norwegian students to study in these countries by encouraging partnerships between higher education institutions. Since its inception in 2008, the programme has allocated NOK 88 million to 170 different projects that promote cooperation with these two countries. Of this sum, approximately NOK 54 million has been awarded to cooperation between institutions in Norway and the USA.

The USA is one of the most popular destination countries among Norwegian students, both exchange students and students who take a full degree abroad. In the academic year 2019–2020, there were a total of 2,593 Norwegian students in the USA. Of these, a clear majority were enrolled in full degree programmes in the USA (1,751 students), compared with 842 who were on a study or training period abroad. The number of Norwegian degree students in the USA has risen sharply in the past ten years, and has more than doubled since the 2007–2008 academic year. However, there has been a slight decrease in recent years. The trend in the number of exchange students in the USA has followed the same pattern as for full-degree students, with a sharp rise between 2012 and 2015, but here too the number has decreased slightly in recent years. Canada is not as popular as a study destination for Norwegian students. There were 137 full-degree students and 164 exchange students in 2019–2020.

In general, Norwegian students have good opportunities to get funding to study in the USA and Canada, both through the Norwegian State Educational Loan Fund (Lånekassen) and through programmes administered by the Norwegian Agency for International Cooperation and Quality Enhancement in Higher Education (Diku). There is also the Norway–America Association (NORAM) and the Fulbright Program for Norwegian students who want to study in the USA. The Fulbright Program is a scholarship programme that gives Norwegian students and researchers the opportunity to go on an exchange to the USA – and vice versa. The programme is administered and partly financed by the US State Department.

The number of inbound students from the USA to Norway is significantly lower than the number of Norwegian students in the USA. In 2019, there were 413 American full-degree students enrolled in Norway. However, this group has grown steadily over the past ten years. The number of exchange students is lower, amounting to 258 students in 2019. The figures for Canada are lower, with 138 enrolled full-degree students and 162 exchange students in 2019, but here too there has been a solid increase in recent years.

Norway wants to continue to strengthen the cooperation within higher education and research with both the USA and Canada, at both the institutional and the governmental level.

2.2.2.4 South America, Asia, Africa

A growing proportion of the world’s knowledge production is taking place outside Europe and North America. Cooperation with countries on other continents will therefore be increasingly important to further develop the Norwegian knowledge society. At the same time, large geographical distances, language, cultural differences and unfamiliar systems make it particularly challenging for Norwegian institutions to establish and further develop cooperation with these countries. It was against this backdrop that the Government presented Panorama – Strategy for cooperation on higher education and research with Brazil, China, India, Japan, Russia and South Africa (2016–2020) in 2015. The Panorama strategy aims to “lay the foundation for more integrated, long-term cooperation with these six countries on higher education and research, with an eye to promoting more high-quality collaboration in areas that are of particular interest to Norway.”19 In other words, the goal is not simply more cooperation, but rather better, more targeted cooperation that forges ties between partnerships on higher education and research, promotes the involvement of non-academic partners, contributes to good student mobility, and underpins Norway’s collaboration in multilateral arenas (such as EU programmes).

In the Panorama strategy, the Government states that it wants more Norwegian students to choose to study in Brazil, China, India, Japan, Russia and South Africa, with a particular focus on student exchanges that are part of a broader institutional partnership. The point of departure is that strategic partnerships at the institutional level facilitate reciprocal mobility within a broader academic cooperation with appropriate integration of higher education, research and innovation. In line with this, the main financial measures related to the strategy – the partnership programmes UTFORSK and INTPART (International Partnerships for Excellent Education and Research) – have been designed to promote the development of long-term partnerships between institutions and academic environments in Norway and the six partner countries. These cooperation programmes in turn pave the way for both student and staff mobility. For students who take their entire education abroad, the Norwegian State Educational Loan Fund (Lånekassen) can provide support for the first, and in some cases second, year of a bachelor’s degree. This applies even if the year cannot be given general recognition and accreditation in ECTS credits by the Norwegian Agency for Quality Assurance in Education (NOKUT). It is a condition that the education can be given general recognition by NOKUT as equivalent to accredited Norwegian education at bachelor’s level. In addition to this, educational support for language learning through the Norwegian State Educational Loan Fund (Lånekassen) for students in non-anglophone countries is an important measure in the strategy to promote student mobility to China, Russia, Japan and Brazil.

Reviews of UTFORSK and INTPART show that the programmes are actively used by Norwegian academic environments and that they serve to underpin several of the overarching priorities in the Panorama strategy (see box). As regards the goal of getting more Norwegian students to choose to study in Brazil, China, India, Japan, Russia and South Africa, preliminary reviews show that it is primarily short mobility stays that have increased since the strategy was initiated. However, the figures vary from country to country.

The findings of an evaluation of the Panorama strategy, which was started in 2019, were published in spring 2020. As a result of the positive evaluation, the Government has decided to renew the Panorama strategy for the period 2021–2027. Today’s six priority partner countries will continue, and South Korea has been added as a new priority partner country. In addition, the two priority partner countries in North America have now been incorporated under this strategy. The main priorities and principles for cooperation remain unchanged.

2.2.3 Cooperation with countries in the Global South

2.2.3.1 NORPART

The Norwegian Partnership Programme for Global Academic Cooperation (NORPART) is funded by both the Ministry of Education and Research and the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, and it is intended to achieve both higher education policy and development policy objectives. The overall goal of the programme is to enhance the quality of higher education in Norway and selected developing countries through long-term academic partnerships and reciprocal student mobility.

The programme has four main goals:

• strengthened partnerships for education and research between developing countries and Norway

• increased quality and internationalisation of academic programmes at participating institutions

• increased student mobility from developing countries to Norway, including mobility in connection with work placements

• increased student mobility from Norway to developing countries, including mobility in connection with work placements

NORPART facilitates cooperation with 39 countries in Africa, Asia and Latin America, therefore this is a slightly different group of countries to those covered by the Quota Scheme. The BRICS countries (Brazil, Russia, India, China and South Africa) are no longer included, as they are now covered by schemes under the Panorama strategy. Nor does NORPART include countries in Eastern Europe and Central Asia. Most of these countries are covered by Diku’s Eurasia Programme, through support schemes related to the EEA and Norway Grants, or through Erasmus+.

The countries included in NORPART are mainly countries that used to send students to Norway under the Norwegian Quota Scheme, plus a number of other countries with a history of or potential for academic cooperation with Norwegian institutions on higher education. Of these, two-thirds are so-called low-income countries, while the remainder are so-called middle-income countries.

A long-term perspective and flexibility were key principles in the work on developing the NORPART programme. Flexibility is important in order to meet the needs and exploit the opportunities at the higher education institutions in Norway and the partner countries. A long-term perspective ensures predictability, which is essential to build strong partnerships, enhance the quality of academic programmes, and develop structures that ensure the sustainability of projects, such as systems for mutual recognition of credits and development of joint courses and study programmes. These are prerequisites for high-quality student mobility between Norway and the partner countries.

Increased student mobility from developing countries to Norway is one of four objectives of the NORPART programme. Two of the other objectives – strengthened partnerships for education and research between developing countries and Norway, and increased quality and internationalisation of academic programmes at participating institutions – are equally important, as they have an impact for far more students than those who are given the opportunity to go to Norway for a study period.

In the national budget for 2020, the allocation to the NORPART programme was increased from NOK 40.3 million to NOK 54.7 million via the Ministry of Education and Research’s budget. The programme was also allocated an additional NOK 15 million via the Ministry of Foreign Affairs’ budget. In connection with this strengthening of the NORPART programme, the Government proposes that the programme can also cover full degrees in Norway for students from the Global South, within certain criteria. At the same time, the programme must work to ensure that the students return to their home country after their studies in Norway. As part of the expansion of the NORPART and the follow-up of the Panorama strategy, South Africa was incorporated into NORPART from 2020.

2.3 Regulations and funding

2.3.1 National regulations and international conventions

Well-designed recognition systems, excellent practice of the regulations, and compliance with ratified conventions are essential in order for Norway to be able to recognise qualifications issued by foreign educational institutions and protect the interests of and make use of people with foreign qualifications in a way that benefits both the individual and society to the greatest possible degree. The framework for inbound and outbound student mobility follows from both national regulations and international conventions that Norway has entered into. This section provides a general presentation of the regulations. There is also a more detailed account of the regulations and international obligations in chapter 9 Recognition of overseas education.

The Norwegian Universities and University Colleges Act20 contains provisions on recognition of foreign higher education qualifications. Decisions on general recognition are made by the Norwegian Agency for Quality Assurance in Education (NOKUT),21 while recognition decisions requiring academic assessment are made by the individual universities and university colleges.22

The system of general recognition of foreign higher education is primarily intended for persons who do not wish to study further in Norway, but who want an assessment of whether the foreign education can be regarded as equivalent to accredited Norwegian higher education in level and scope, so that it can be used in a non-regulated profession.

The system of specific recognition of foreign higher education is primarily intended for persons who wish to study further in Norway. Specific recognition is based on assessments of the individual applicant’s education against a specific study programme (or in some cases several study programmes) offered at the Norwegian higher education institution that has received the application.

In addition to the systems for recognition of foreign education qualifications established on the basis of the Universities and University Colleges Act, there are also systems for recognition of qualifications for regulated professions. Regulated professions differ from non-regulated professions in that practitioners must have authorisation or recognition from the competent authority in order to be able to practise their profession. The system for recognition of professional qualifications (authorisation) differs from, and must be kept separate from, the system for recognition of foreign higher education as discussed above and in chapter 9, since it constitutes an approval of the profession, as opposed to the education. General or specific recognition of foreign education qualifications does not automatically entitle the individual to practise a profession regulated by law.

Recognition of a qualification from a foreign educational institution must also be in accordance with international agreements that Norway has enter into. The relevant international agreements in this context are the Lisbon Recognition Convention, which concerns the recognition of higher education qualifications in the European region, and the revised Reykjavík Declaration, which concerns mutual recognition of education taken in the Nordic countries.

2.3.2 The funding system for universities and university colleges

The funding system for universities and public and private university colleges encompasses the Ministry of Education and Research’s allocations to the public institutions and grants to private institutions. Each institution receives a block grant made up of two components: a basic allocation and a performance-based funding component. The performance-based funding is intended to stimulate results in areas that are central to quality in education and research and is based on the individual institution’s performance on eight quantitative indicators. The funding is based on the results the institutions achieve on eight quantitative indicators. One of these is the exchange indicator, which triggers funding based on the number of exchange students an institution has, in the form of a fixed rate per inbound and outbound exchange student. This indicator has an open budget framework, which means that each additional student entails an increase in the funding at a fixed rate, whereas fewer students will result in a reduction in funding. Performance-based funding is granted for mobility of at least three months’ duration. In 2019, the institutions received NOK 10,300 per inbound and outbound exchange student (not including students with individual exchange agreements), while the rate for outbound Erasmus+ students was higher, at NOK 15,450 per student. The additional funding is awarded through the national budget two years after the results were achieved.

2.3.3 Educational support for students abroad

Facilitating studies abroad through public funding and central recognition systems is an important educational policy instrument. Educational support through the Norwegian State Educational Loan Fund (Lånekassen) means that most people in Norway have the opportunity to study. The purpose of the educational support scheme is to help ensure equal opportunities for education, regardless of geographical location, age, gender, disability, and financial and/or social factors. The scheme shall also ensure that society and industry have access to the competencies they need, and that education takes place under satisfactory conditions that allow for effective studying.

The state and the individual share the cost of higher education. Students from Norway studying abroad are entitled to support to cover living expenses, in line with students studying in Norway. All students studying abroad may be entitled to support to cover living expenses, tuition fees and travel. The support is provided partly as a grant and partly as a loan. In the event of illness or childbirth, schemes exists where loan can be converted into a grant. Furthermore, there are special grants available for students with children and students with disabilities. There is a special recruitment grant for certain master’s degree programmes in France and Germany.

Students who take a full degree abroad must study full-time in order to qualify for support. For these students, the loan is interest-free while they are studying. Students who study part-time in Norway are entitled to a period abroad while studying at the same percentage on the programme abroad as they did in Norway. In connection with a loan or grant for part-time education, interest accumulates on the debt from previous education.23

Support is provided for education taken abroad. It is a condition that the education can be given general recognition by the Norwegian Agency for Quality Assurance in Education (NOKUT) as equivalent to accredited Norwegian education at bachelor’s or master’s level. For programmes at the doctoral level, it is a condition that the education can be given general recognition by NOKUT as equivalent to an accredited Norwegian PhD. Education in another Nordic country must normally be publicly accredited and be eligible for student support in the country of study. Educational support from the Norwegian State Educational Loan Fund (Lånekassen) does not automatically provide authorisation to practise professions regulated by law in Norway.

Support can also be granted for study or training periods abroad that have been pre-approved in Norway by a university, a specialised university college or a university college. The education must be part of a bachelor’s or master’s degree. The grant–loan ratio is such that it favours partial studies and master’s degree programmes, in the sense that students receive a higher grant share for these studies when funding is provided for tuition fees at an overseas institution.

The main criteria to qualify for funding from the Norwegian State Educational Loan Fund (Lånekassen) for degree education overseas are that the applicant has obtained a higher education entrance qualification, that they are a Norwegian citizen24, that they have been admitted to a programme of education that qualifies them for support, and that they meet the conditions concerning connection to Norway.

For selected institutions of particularly high quality, students can receive an additional grant, if the tuition fees are higher than NOK 133,752 for the entire academic year (2019–2020). The Norwegian Agency for International Cooperation and Quality Enhancement in Higher Education (Diku) is responsible for the list of overseas institutions that qualify for a grant. The list is revised each year.

Norway’s educational support is regarded as good in an international perspective, and in particular the support available to students who choose to study overseas, because it has few restrictions. The Norwegian scheme is discussed in more detail in chapter 8.

2.4 The situation in other countries

Most countries have taken steps to increase student mobility and have developed overarching strategies with defined objectives, targets and measures. However, most of these strategies seem to focus on inbound mobility. Unlike Norway, which does not have a clear strategy for inbound student mobility, most countries attach far greater importance to recruiting students from abroad, as opposed to sending their own students out into the world. This is the case in the Netherlands, Russia, the United Kingdom, Finland, the United States, Canada and France, among others.

Three factors seem to be pivotal in explaining why these countries attach greater importance to inbound student mobility than outbound. Firstly, the recruitment of outstanding international students can strengthen the quality of the higher education institution and make it more attractive internationally. Secondly, outstanding students will at a later date be able to help boost the country’s economy and ability to innovate by providing highly skilled labour. In this respect, several countries, including Denmark, Finland and the Netherlands, are focusing on ensuring that the rules on immigration, work permits, social security rights, etc. enable the recruitment of highly qualified skilled workers from abroad. Thirdly, international students contribute to the funding of the higher education in the host country. This is particularly relevant in countries where education is substantially funded by tuition fees, such as the United Kingdom. Tuition fees from international students can also be used to help subsidise domestic students. Japan wants to recruit a higher proportion of inbound students specifically to counterbalance the country’s aging population.

Unlike most countries, but in line with Norway, Austria, by contrast, seems to attach greatest importance to outbound mobility, in addition to developing international networks and partnerships. Despite this, Austria has a large preponderance of inbound students. Austria has formulated clear targets for outbound mobility of both students and academic staff. The outcome that students and staff who spend time overseas will gain new perspectives and broader horizons is highlighted as an important underlying objective of the strategy. The main goal, however, is to strengthen Austria’s standing as a leading nation in science, research and industry. The fact that higher education in Austria is not funded through tuition fees to any significant extent is probably part of the reason the country attaches greatest importance to outbound mobility.

The situation is changing in the two most populous countries in the world – India and China. A significant number of students from China and India have traditionally gone overseas to study at foreign universities, due to limited capacity in their own education systems, and little attention has been paid to inbound mobility. More recently, however, India has created an online portal for international students, Study in India, covering the 100 highest-ranked higher education institutions in the country. China is now welcoming a significant number of international students, in part through a major investment and development project called the Belt and Road Initiative (BRI). China has also introduced a more flexible admissions policy for international students. This suggests that India and China have begun to prioritise inbound mobility. Most of the inbound students come from neighbouring countries, or from countries China and India want closer relations with. At the same time, they are increasingly sending their own students to universities in Europe and North America.