5 Norway’s ocean industries: status, trends and developments for value creation and environmental pressures and impacts

Norway’s seas and oceans are rich in natural resources, and the country has always taken a long-term approach to resource management for the benefit of society as a whole. This chapter describes status, trends and expected developments for Norway’s ocean industries, value creation by these industries, and the associated environmental pressures and impacts. This includes an account of their potential role in climate change mitigation.

Ocean industries account for a large proportion of value added in Norway, totalling NOK 2306 billion in 2022. The ocean industries provided employment for 233 600 people in 2022, and provide a significant share of employment all along the Norwegian coast. The largest ocean industries in Norway are the fisheries, the petroleum industry and shipping. In addition, new industries such as offshore wind, offshore aquaculture, CO₂ storage on the continental shelf and seabed mineral activities will result in value creation and employment opportunities in the years ahead.

Clean and productive oceans are an essential basis for a wide range of industrial activities at sea. However, ocean industries also affect ecosystems through harvesting, physical disturbance of the seabed, pollution, litter, noise and the spread of alien species. They also represent a risk of environmental damage as a result of acute pollution.

Climate change mitigation measures related to the oceans and ocean industries have the potential to contribute substantially both to reducing emissions and to enhancing carbon uptake. This contribution is an important element of the long-term social benefits and value creation these industries can provide. According to a report commissioned by the Ocean Panel, The Ocean as a Solution to Climate Change. Updated Opportunities for Action, ocean-based mitigation options could up to 2030 close as much as 18 % of the gap between current policy and the mitigation needed to limit global warming to 1.5 ^oC. Over a longer time frame, up to 2050, the estimated proportion is 35 %. These figures are based on a range of assumptions and the level of uncertainty is high. Overall estimates of this kind have not been made for Norwegian waters.

5.1 Fisheries and other harvesting of living marine resources

Fishing has historically been an essential basis for settlement all along Norway’s long coastline. Harvesting of living marine resources accounts for substantial value creation. There is also considerable activity by foreign fishing vessels in Norwegian waters. Seafood is Norway’s most important export, and of great significance for world food security.

5.1.1 Description of the industry

Catches by Norwegian vessels for the country as a whole totalled 2.2 million tonnes in 2016 and 2.6 million tonnes in 2021 (figure 5.1). This rise is mainly explained by higher catches of Norwegian spring-spawning herring and mackerel. Catches of cod and haddock declined somewhat in the same period, and totalled 376 000 tonnes and 101 000 tonnes respectively in 2021, while catches of saithe have risen from 155 000 tonnes in 2016 to 189 000 tonnes in 2021.

Source: Directorate of Fisheries

Major structural changes have been made in the Norwegian fishing industry over a number of decades. In 1960, the peak year, there were 41 000 registered fishing vessels in Norway. By 1990, the number of vessels had been reduced to about 17 000, and in 2021 there were only 5 633 registered vessels. Catches per person are about 30 times larger today than they were in 1945, and as a result the fishing industry is profitable and subsidies have been virtually eliminated.

Status and trends for fish stocks

The most important commercial stocks in the Barents Sea–Lofoten area are Northeast Arctic cod, haddock, saithe, shrimps, Norwegian spring-spawning herring and capelin. The stocks of Northeast Arctic cod, haddock and saithe are in good or very good biological condition. The recruitment cycle of Norwegian spring-spawning herring is variable, and stock growth is therefore dependent on a few particularly strong year classes. The shrimp stock in the Barents Sea is in good condition, while there are fluctuations in the capelin stock. These are explained by considerable predation pressure from the large Northeast Arctic cod stock, and at times poor recruitment to the capelin spawning stock.

Changes have been observed in the distribution of the Northeast Arctic cod stock in the last few years. Spawning is now also taking place in areas further north and northeast than the traditional spawning grounds around the Lofoten and Vesterålen Islands, and the range of the mature stock has shifted further north and northeast. This is illustrated by that fact that cod have been caught as far north as Franz Josef Land and as far east as the northern Kara Sea. In recent years, spring-spawning herring have been overwintering on bank areas and in waters west of the Lofoten and Vesterålen Islands and Troms, and numbers of herring in the Vestfjorden east of the Lofoten Islands have been low. Herring spawn mainly off the coast of Møre og Romsdal in February–March, but there is also some spawning off the coast of Nordland and around the Lofoten and Vesterålen Islands.

The snow crab has become a valuable commercial species on the Norwegian continental shelf in the Barents Sea. The first Norwegian catches were registered in 2012, and in 2022, the harvest reached a total of 7 960 tonnes. For 2024, a total allowable catch (TAC) of 10 300 tonnes was set for the Norwegian shelf, and knowledge about the stock has been improved through the monitoring programme run by the Institute of Marine Research.

Photo: Norwegian Coast Guard

The most important commercial stocks in the Norwegian Sea (Norwegian spring-spawning herring, blue whiting, mackerel and Northeast Arctic saithe) are in good condition, meaning that the harvest is well within biological limits. Coastal cod stocks are in poor condition. Golden redfish is classed as endangered in the Norwegian Red List in Norwegian waters, including both the Norwegian Sea and the Barents Sea. The recruitment cycle of Norwegian spring-spawning herring is variable, and stock growth is therefore dependent on a few particularly strong year classes. Management of the mackerel stock is based on multilateral agreements between the coastal states, but despite many rounds of negotiations, they have failed to reach agreement on mackerel quotas for a number of years.

In the North Sea–Skagerrak area, the most important commercial stocks (mackerel, North Sea herring, shrimps, Norway pout and sandeel) are in good condition, meaning that the harvest is well within biological limits. Coastal cod stocks are in poor condition. The cod stock in the North Sea and Skagerrak is in poor condition, even though fish mortality has been reduced and the spawning biomass has risen after a historical low in 2006. Sandeels are highly stationary, and Norway follows an area-based management model in the North Sea. Only selected areas of sandeel habitat are opened for fishing each year. The sandeel stock varies greatly as a result of wide variation in recruitment and because sandeels are very short-lived.

Catch quantities

In the period 2016–2021, catches by Norwegian vessels in the Barents Sea–Lofoten area varied between 746 000 tonnes in 2016 and 1 102 000 tonnes in 2021. The overall increase from 2016 to 2021 is mainly explained by a rise in herring catches.

In the same period, catches by Norwegian vessels in the Norwegian Sea varied between 481 000 tonnes in 2016 and 581 000 tonnes in 2021. The largest change in this period was in mackerel catches, which rose from 151 000 tonnes to 248 000 tonnes.

Herring and sandeels make up a very large proportion of catch quantities in the North Sea fisheries. North Sea herring is managed on the basis of a bilateral agreement between Norway and the UK, and the recommended TAC for 2021 was 359 367 tonnes. This is lower than in previous years. In the North Sea–Skagerrak area, the catch of North Sea herring by Norwegian vessels varied between 150 000 tonnes in 2016 and 95 000 tonnes in 2021. In the same period, there was a large rise in sandeel catches, from 41 000 tonnes in 2016 to 146 000 tonnes in 2021.

Expected developments in future

There are strong expectations that exploitation of marine resources in general, and of living marine resources in particular, will become even more important in future. To ensure continued sustainable fisheries management, it will be vital to maintain and further develop the management strategies for the major commercial stocks. It will also be important to continue the development of management strategies for all wild marine fish stocks and wild living marine resources generally.

Climate change is part of the backdrop for the future, and the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) has pointed out how important it is to manage fish stocks in a way that builds up their resilience. Important fish stocks are already shifting their distribution further north and northeast both in the North Sea and in more northerly waters. Northeast Arctic cod is currently distributed across much of the area north of 62 ^oN, and is fished in large parts of the Barents Sea and Norwegian Sea. If, as expected, its distribution continues to shift further northwards and eastwards, the Barents Sea is likely to become even more important for the cod fishery in future, while the Norwegian Sea becomes correspondingly less important. The northerly shift in the distribution of Northeast Atlantic mackerel in recent years, on the other hand, may also be linked to large natural cyclic fluctuations. Mackerel were for example also observed in far northern waters 90–100 years ago.

Marine bioprospecting

Marine bioprospecting is a subspeciality of marine biotechnology involving a systematic search for organisms, genes and molecules that could have a potential for commercial exploitation.

Marine bioprospecting activities, for example at UiT the Arctic University of Norway, have resulted in the discovery of a range of products that may be of commercial interest. Of particular interest are a number of cold-adapted enzymes, which among other things are being used in pharmaceutical applications. Such enzymes are already being produced and sold commercially, licensed by UiT. This has created a good many jobs and is generating sales income. Another innovation is the world’s first natural product that can reduce blood pressure, based on peptides in shrimp shells. Other products are also being developed using findings from marine organisms living in cold Norwegian waters, and may provide a basis for establishing new businesses or diversifying existing companies.

Technological advances combined with developments in gene technology are considered to offer a potential for expanding value creation based on biological resources. Research institutes and other expertise in marine bioprospecting and the utilisation of marine resources have in the past provided a basis for the establishment of many industrial ventures using new species or residual raw materials from species that are already in commercial use.

Harvesting of the copepod Calanus finmarchicus and mesopelagic species

There is a huge biomass of resources at lower trophic levels, so that there is theoretically a large potential for value creation. This will primarily be of interest in the Norwegian Sea, but less relevant in the North Sea. There are many areas of use for these resources, and feed for a growing aquaculture sector is particularly important. Knowledge development in a number of areas will be required to realise the potential for harvesting both C. finmarchicus and mesopelagic species, including learning more about their biology and developing catch technology and processing techniques. However, the scale of bycatches of fish eggs and larvae makes harvesting in coastal waters problematic, while further out to sea it is a considerable challenge to find areas where resources are reasonably accessible. Profitability has also proved to be variable, even though there has been a long period of experimental harvesting.

C. finmarchicus belongs to the zooplankton and is a key species in the ecosystem. Experimental harvesting started in 2003. From 2019, ordinary commercial harvesting has also been permitted, based on a management plan specifically for this species, which includes a system of quotas and permits. The aim is to phase out the experimental fishery gradually now that a commercial harvesting regime is in place.

Mesopelagic is a generic term used to describe species that live at depths of 200 to 1 000 metres in the water column. There is a very large biomass of mesopelagic species, but only a limited experimental fishery targeting these species, mainly various species of lantern fish (Myctophidae). Finding accessible resources has proved to be a considerable challenge, and accidental bycatches can be a problem, particularly when harvesting near the coast. The development of harvesting technology and products is at an early stage. The Directorate of Fisheries has issued a number of licences for mesopelagic fisheries as a way of promoting development, but many of them are not in use.

5.1.2 Management, value added and employment

Fisheries management

The aim of fisheries management is to ensure ecologically sustainable and economically viable management of wild living marine resources and the genetic material derived from them. In other words, wild living marine resources must be used in a way that maintains biodiversity and ecosystem productivity and functioning. The fisheries management regime is also intended to promote employment and settlement in coastal communities.

The knowledge base for and approach to Norwegian fisheries management are continually updated, and the management regime has evolved from single-species management to a more ecosystem-based system that includes elements such as precautionary spawning stock reference points and fishing patterns.

Important areas of work within fisheries management include taking part in international negotiations on TACs and quotas, setting national quotas, regulating the right to take part in fisheries, and inspection and control of catches to ensure compliance with the legislation.

The environment and natural resources in the seas and oceans are the basis for all marine value creation. To ensure a high long-term yield from commercial stocks, they must be managed on the basis of scientific advice, sound management principles and good control of harvesting. Quotas and TACs fluctuate with the size of the stocks. Within biological limits, Norway seeks to maintain stability in the way TACs are shared, so that the situation for fishing vessels and companies is as predictable as possible.

Climate change and ocean acidification are expected to result in considerable changes in marine ecosystems. This is likely to affect the distribution, stock size and catch potential of many fish stocks, but the extent of the changes will vary between fish stocks and between different parts of Norway’s marine and coastal waters. The resulting changes in ecosystem dynamics and the greater uncertainty regarding the future resource base are factors that are taken into account in fisheries management, and the management regime is adapted as necessary. Norway’s fisheries management regime is already being continually adapted to the latest available knowledge about stocks and ecosystems, which is obtained from marine research groups and institutions and the International Council for the Exploration of the Sea (ICES). This makes it relatively straightforward to incorporate climate change adaptation into the system. From 2024 onwards, all proposals for new regulatory measures for the fisheries will include an assessment of how climate change will affect stocks and ecosystems.

Over many years, the fisheries administration has developed various types of area-based regulatory measures that have differing primary aims. There is considerable interest in area-based fisheries management measures, both in Norway and internationally. The Food and Agriculture Organization of the UN (FAO), ICES and the North East Atlantic Fisheries Commission (NEAFC) are all drawing up guidance and reviewing existing regulatory measures to assess which of them can be classified as ‘other effective area-based conservation measures’ (OECMs) in line with the criteria adopted under the Convention on Biological Diversity. Norway is carrying out a similar review of national measures. Area-based measures that include restrictions on bottom trawling or that prohibit fishing, for example around coral reefs, will also provide protection for benthic ecosystems. The Institute of Marine Research published reports in 2021 and 2023 on fisheries management measures that also contribute to the conservation of marine biodiversity.

Value added and employment

In 2021, total value added from the Norwegian fishing industry was NOK 16.2 billion.

Quota sizes and market prices are the main factors that determine the value of the resources harvested from the ocean by the fishing industry. In addition, the value in NOK varies with fluctuations in the currency market. The TAC for cod, which is one of the important fish stocks, will be lower in 2024 than in the preceding years. This is expected to result in somewhat higher market prices, but the effect on the overall value of the cod harvest is uncertain. There is generally some uncertainty concerning the estimates for future market prices. In recent years, there has been growing interest in harvesting new species such as snow crab. At the moment, costs are high in this fishery, but economic losses have been reduced in recent years. It is expected that harvesting will become more efficient, and that prices will rise with a greater willingness to pay in the market. The impacts of higher fuel prices vary between different fishing vessel groups, and are greatest for trawlers. It is uncertain how much impact this will have on value added. In the short term, no major changes in value added in the fishing industry are expected.

In 2021, the fishing industry provided employment for 9 100 people.

5.1.3 Contribution to greenhouse gas emission reductions

Global food systems account for up to one third of anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions, driven particularly by land-based production of animal protein, especially red meat.

Estimates of global food-related greenhouse gas emissions early in the present century range between 4.6 and 13.7 billion tonnes CO₂e. Modelling indicates that changes in the composition of people’s diets and a shift away from the most GHG-intensive types of food production are the most effective ways of cutting greenhouse gas emissions from the food system.

Emissions associated with ocean-based food production vary between species, production methods, types of fishing gear and geographical areas, but are generally lower than for land-based production of animal protein, particularly red meat.

Greenhouse gas emissions can be reduced through direct cuts in emissions from seafood production. For the fisheries, possible approaches include switching to fishing methods, gear and vessels that use less fuel, and decarbonising the fuel used by fishing fleets. Aquaculture establishments can for example use more renewable electricity, locally produced feed, or feed ingredients from fisheries, crops and other upstream systems that generate lower emissions. Emissions can also be reduced by increasing production and consumption of low-emission seafood products, and at the same time promoting a dietary shift to a larger share of plant-based food and seafood and a smaller share of GHG-intensive foods such as red meat. Reducing food waste throughout the value chain will increase the amount of food available for consumption.

5.1.4 Environmental pressures and impacts

Fishing activities put substantial pressure on ocean ecosystems through harvesting of target species, disturbance of the seabed, and intentional and unintentional bycatches. Additional pressure is caused by accidental losses of fishing gear leading to plastic pollution and ghost fishing, and by noise, physical disturbance, sediment deposition and the spread of alien species.

Source: Directorate of Fisheries

Physical disturbance of habitats

The fisheries put direct physical pressure on a larger area than any other commercial activity in Norwegian waters. This is because of the geographical extent of benthic fisheries, including trawling. The impacts of these activities are accepted as an inevitable consequence of effective food production from the oceans. However, in certain areas active management of fishing activities is used limit the impacts and safeguard vulnerable species and marine ecosystems, for example by prohibiting towed gear that may touch the seabed. Coral reefs, sponge aggregations and seapen communities are good examples of vulnerable ecosystems.

Benthic communities such as corals, sponge aggregations and species that live partly or entirely buried in sediments can be damaged by benthic trawls and other fishing gear that comes into contact with the seabed.

Measured by the number of trawling hours, trawling activity has increased in the North Sea–Skagerrak area and the Barents Sea–Lofoten area in the period 2011–2021, but has declined somewhat in the Norwegian Sea in the same period.

Catches and harvesting of biomass

The fisheries put pressure on ecosystems primarily through annual harvesting of a proportion of the commercial fish stocks.

The potential catch volume in the fisheries is limited by the productivity of the relevant fish stocks. When setting TACs for fish stocks, it is therefore important to ensure that the overall harvest does not exceed a level that will maintain a stable, high level of productivity. Since the carrying capacity of the marine environment is not constant, fish stocks must be monitored closely and at frequent intervals to obtain data on the wide variations in recruitment that are characteristic of most of Norway’s fish stocks.

Over time, the management regime has evolved from single-species management to a more ecosystem-based system that includes elements such as precautionary spawning stock reference points and fishing patterns. The system is being developed continually. The Directorate of Fisheries and the Institute of Marine Research have developed an approach to ecosystem-based fisheries management that also includes environmental pressures and impacts on the ecosystem, and where challenges are identified and assigned priorities for follow-up.

The most important commercial stocks in Norwegian waters are generally in good condition. However, stock sizes fluctuate. For example, the spawning stock of Norwegian spring-spawning herring is expected to fall below the precautionary level in 2024 as a result of high overall fishing pressure and poor recruitment.

Of the smaller stocks, Norwegian coastal cod, European eel and golden redfish are still in poor condition, while stocks of species such as beaked redfish, sandeels and spiny dogfish have grown in recent years. The harvesting of target species also has wider impacts on the ecosystem through effects on the food chain. This may influence predation pressure on some species, food availability for other species, or competitive relationships between species. Norway has therefore undertaken to pursue an ecosystem-based approach to fisheries management.

Bycatches

Both fishing gear and regulatory measures are designed to minimise bycatches.

However, some catches of species other than the target species are unavoidable during ordinary fishing activities. To avoid excessive harvesting of other species, bycatch quotas and other targeted regulatory measures have been introduced. The aim is to ensure that harvesting of bycatch species is also sustainable.

Unintentional bycatches of fish below minimum sizes and larvae of commercial species are effectively regulated through rules on mesh sizes, the use of sorting grids and the closure of areas where there is a high proportion of fish under the minimum size.

Bycatches may also include seabirds, marine mammals and benthic animals such as corals and sponges. The scale of the bycatch depends on factors including the type of fishing gear, the geographical area and the time of year. Regulatory measures have been developed on the basis of knowledge about bycatch quantities and options for further reducing unintentional bycatches. One example of an effective targeted measure is the rule that the use of pingers is mandatory in the Vestfjorden in winter in order to scare porpoises away from gill nets. Another is the closure of areas where there are coral reefs and the requirement for fishing vessels to move to another area if sponge bycatches are too large.

Ghost fishing

Lost or abandoned fishing gear can continue to catch fish and other animals, a phenomenon known as ghost fishing. Anyone fishing commercially in Norway is required to search for lost gear and report losses to the Norwegian Coast Guard if the gear is not retrieved. The Directorate of Fisheries organises an annual retrieval programme in selected parts of fishing grounds along the coast and offshore to find and return gear that has been reported as lost. A smaller-scale programme targets more limited areas close to the coast and in fjords. Despite this, the quantity of fishing gear lost, abandoned, or in some cases apparently dumped, is larger than the quantity retrieved. Some types of pots and traps are now required to have an escape hatch closed with cotton thread that degrades over time, reducing ghost fishing. The Directorate of Fisheries supports and contributes to research on and the development of new materials, gear types and technology to reduce both ghost fishing and pollution.

Pollution and waste

Lost, abandoned and dumped fishing gear is a source of litter and plastic pollution. Ropes and rope ends are also a major source. Other items found in marine litter include fish boxes, packaging foil, packing tape, floats and consumer products. Fishing vessels can also spread pollutants and microplastics through wear and tear of paint and antifouling systems.

Fishing vessels are permitted to dump trimmings from their catches to the sea. In 2021, a total of 144 000 tonnes of residual raw materials in the whitefish sector was not utilised. Trimmings are dumped over a large geographical area. However, there is no indication that this has negative impacts on marine ecosystems. Trimmings that are dumped are also a source of food for various species, including seabirds.

5.2 Aquaculture

5.2.1 Description of the industry

The Norwegian aquaculture industry is currently dominated by production of salmon and rainbow trout. Norway accounts for a relatively small proportion of total global aquaculture production, but is the world’s largest producer of Atlantic salmon. Other segments of the Norwegian aquaculture industry are farmed production of other fish and crustaceans, cultivation of seaweed and kelp, and sea ranching.

Aquaculture is one of Norway’s largest export industries. In 2022, sales of farmed fish totalled about 1.65 million tonnes, with an overall first-hand value of about NOK 106 billion. Production of salmon and rainbow trout has for the last few years been highly profitable.

At present, there is no aquaculture production in the management plan areas, only closer to shore. Aquaculture is a coastal and regional industry, and production takes place both in the sea and on land. One of the current trends in the industry is that Norwegian companies are gradually expanding to use areas of sea, still within the baseline, that are further from land and more exposed to wind, waves and currents.

Plans are also being developed for offshore aquaculture, in other words outside the areas that are currently used, in Norway’s territorial sea and exclusive economic zone. The Ministry of Trade, Industry and Fisheries is following up the recommendations of a report on offshore aquaculture published in 2018, and is working with other ministries and directorates to develop appropriate legislation.

The potential for reducing greenhouse gas emission reductions is discussed in Chapter 5.1.3 for the seafood production sector (fisheries and aquaculture) as a whole.

5.2.2 Management, value added and employment

An overriding objective in the management of the aquaculture industry is to increase value creation on the basis of predictable growth within sustainable limits. Important elements of aquaculture management include biosecurity, environmental pressures and impacts, fish health and welfare, and spatial management. Aquaculture licences are a key tool for managing the aquaculture industry. One condition for issuing licences under the Aquaculture Act is that all necessary permits and licences under the Pollution Control Act, the Food Act and other legislation have already been obtained.

A spatial management and licensing system for offshore aquaculture has been established in chapter 4 of the regulations on licensing of commercial production of salmon, trout and rainbow trout. The Government has commissioned an overall impact assessment for offshore aquaculture for three areas: the southern Norwegian Trench, the northern part of the Frøyabanken bank area and the Trænabanken bank area. These areas lie between 12 and 40 nautical miles outside the baseline. The regulations require an overall impact assessment to be carried out before an area can be opened for licensing applications for offshore aquaculture. An overall impact assessment is intended to provide the authorities with a basis for deciding how suitable different areas are for aquaculture, and whether offshore aquaculture in an area is compatible with existing uses and with environmental interests. Before the three areas were selected for the overall impact assessment, several other areas were considered, and more areas may be included in later impact assessments. A decision on whether to open an area for offshore aquaculture is to be taken by the Government (formally the King in Council). After this, the Ministry of Trade, Industry and Fisheries will decide when licences for offshore aquaculture establishments are to be issued, and where they are to be sited in areas that have been opened. More detailed rules on the allocation of offshore aquaculture licences will be set out in regulations. Establishing aquaculture establishments at offshore sites will require licences under legislation for various sectors, in the same way as aquaculture in coastal waters.

The aquaculture industry has expanded considerably, measured both in terms of overall value added and as a share of mainland Norway’s GDP. In 2019, the industry provided about NOK 28 billion in total value added, corresponding to about 1 % of GDP for mainland Norway. The aquaculture industry also supports activity in related sectors, and is important for employment along the Norwegian coast. Further development of the industry is expected to result in larger contributions to value added and employment.

Environmental change may alter the geographical distribution of areas that are suitable for different types of aquaculture. As the sea temperature rises, there may be a northward shift in the areas that are most suitable for salmon farming. According to the IPCC, climate change, particularly in combination with inputs of nutrients, may be the reason for the observed increase in the frequency of toxic algal blooms in many areas, including the North Atlantic. The aquaculture industry and the management regime may need to be adapted to climate and environmental change.

5.2.3 Environmental pressures and impacts

So far, no offshore aquaculture production has been established in Norway. Offshore aquaculture will generally result in environmental pressures and impacts that are similar to those associated with coastal aquaculture, but there will probably be some additional challenges at offshore sites. Because the level of production at each establishment will typically be higher, offshore aquaculture may have greater impacts. The weather conditions will be harsher, affecting both facilities and fish.

Environmental impacts of aquaculture are regulated through general requirements on establishment, operation and closure set out in the aquaculture legislation and under the Pollution Control Act.

Fish farming in open net pens results in discharges of dissolved and particulate organic matter such as feed residues and faeces, dissolved inorganic nutrients (nitrogen and phosphorus), pollutants from fish feed, impregnating agents for nets, and pharmaceuticals. In addition, fish farms are responsible for noise and light pollution in connection with production and transport, and for waste, microplastics from wear and tear on facilities, and emissions to air from energy sources. The industry also contributes to pollution when Marine litter consisting of equipment and fragments of equipment such as plastic rings, rope, nets, floats and fish boxes that end up in the environment is another source of pollution from the industry.

The most serious adverse impacts of aquaculture on wild anadromous salmonid stocks are associated with the spread of sea lice and infectious pathogens and the genetic impact of escaped farmed fish. The largest greenhouse gas emissions from fish farming originate from raw materials used in fish feed and from transport and production.

The development of offshore aquaculture production will involve longer distances between establishments and from other infrastructure and land. This may result in greater logistical challenges than those facing coastal aquaculture production. Supplies must be maintained, both for fish production and for personnel at the fish farms, and weather conditions must be taken into account. The distance to land will also require changes to the rules for emergency equipment and training and various back-up solutions that apply to inshore aquaculture establishments and sites. The changes could include systems for responding to acute pollution or large-scale fish escapes.

Offshore aquaculture establishments will be located in more exposed areas with stronger currents than the localities currently in use, so that pollution will spread more widely and have impacts at a greater distance than is the case for coastal aquaculture. For organic matter, the wider spread and dilution of effluent may mean that offshore sites have a greater assimilative capacity than semi-enclosed sites in fjords. However, in the case of hazardous substances, wider spread of pollutants is not desirable, even though greater dilution may keep pollution levels below the assimilative capacity close to a particular locality. Another potential problem is that the establishment of offshore aquaculture production may force salmon smolt to swim longer distances in areas where they risk infection with sea lice and other pathogens on their way out to sea. In addition, this may pose a risk to other countries’ fish stocks, since salmon from stocks in other European countries probably also migrate through and feed in certain areas that are being considered for offshore aquaculture.

Although we have built up a great deal of knowledge about the environmental impacts of coastal fish farming, it is important to be aware that there are some major gaps in our knowledge about such activities in offshore waters. For example, we need to know more about biodiversity in the areas under consideration, about processes for selecting suitable areas for offshore aquaculture and about the operation of fish farms once they are established. The impact of offshore aquaculture will in practice also depend on the scale of production, the technology chosen, the precise locations used and how close fish farms are to vulnerable biodiversity. Offshore aquaculture will probably be developed in addition to rather than instead of coastal aquaculture. Its environmental impacts must therefore be assessed in a similar way. It will be important to ensure that establishment of the first offshore fish farms is followed up with documentation and research that can help to fill knowledge gaps relating to the environment, fish welfare and coexistence with other ocean industries.

5.3 The petroleum industry

5.3.1 Description of the industry

The petroleum sector is highly productive, and the industry provides Norway with large revenues and a great deal of value creation and employment. Petroleum activities can be divided into three main parts: the discovery of oil and gas resources; the development of fields where there are commercially viable finds; and the production and sale of oil and gas.

The activity level on the Norwegian shelf has been high in recent years. Licensees have taken decisions to develop many new discoveries, and many field development projects are now nearing completion or have reached the production phase. To improve recovery, major investments have also been made in fields that are already in production. In the period 2020–2022, the authorities received plans for development and operation for 18 new projects and 13 plans for further development of fields that were already on stream. On 1 January 2024, 92 fields on the Norwegian continental shelf were producing oil and gas, and 27 projects were in the development stage.

In 2023, daily production from the Norwegian continental shelf was about 233 million standard cubic metres of oil equivalents (Sm³ o.e.), corresponding to roughly 4 million barrels o.e. In recent years, the North Sea fields have accounted for about 70 % of production on the Norwegian shelf. The North Sea is the most thoroughly explored part of the Norwegian shelf, and the area that has produced most oil and gas. The fields in the Norwegian Sea have accounted for about 25 % and those in the Barents Sea for about 5 % of production from the Norwegian shelf.

Source: Norwegian Offshore Directorate

5.3.2 Management, value added and employment

Petroleum activities may take place in areas opened by the Storting (Norwegian parliament) and in accordance with other regulatory measures, including the framework for specific geographical areas set out in the ocean management plans. Sectoral legislation is used to ensure compliance with the framework.

New production licences are as a general rule awarded through the system of awards in predefined areas (APA system), which provides predictable access to exploration areas.

Value added and employment

The petroleum industry is currently Norway’s largest, measured in terms of value added, state revenues, investment and export value. One of the overall principles of Norway’s management of its petroleum resources is that petroleum activities must result in maximum value creation for society, and that revenues must accrue to the Norwegian state and thus benefit society as a whole, including future generations.

Value added in the petroleum sector has been stable and high in the period since the previous update of the management plans. Value added in this sector depends mainly on total oil and gas production, which has also been relatively stable during this period. There are larger fluctuations in value added in the sector measured in current prices, because of the variability of oil and gas prices.

The number of people employed in the petroleum sector varies with the level of activity, and has been just under 100 000 during this reporting period. This figure excludes a large proportion of employment in onshore supply industries serving the petroleum industry. If indirect employment is included, Statistics Norway estimates that the petroleum sector employs about 156 000 people. In addition, petroleum activities have substantial spin-off effects throughout the country in the form of both value added and employment.

5.3.3 Contribution to greenhouse gas emission reductions

The largest reductions in greenhouse gas emissions from petroleum activities can be achieved by supplying fields with power from shore. Since the previous management plan period, the joint solution for supplying power from shore to the Utsira High region has been put into operation. This includes the fields Johan Sverdrup, Edvard Grieg, Ivar Aasen, Gina Krog and Sleipner Øst. The Martin Linge field is also on stream and is operated using power from shore. In addition, several projects that include power from shore have been approved by the authorities and are under development. Infrastructure for power from shore is under construction for the Oseberg Field Centre and Oseberg Sør, Troll B and C, Draugen, Njord and for the onshore liquefied natural gas plant Hammerfest LNG. Development of the Yggdrasil field has been approved with power supplied from shore. Other action companies are taking includes improvements in energy efficiency, a reduction in flaring, and connecting facilities directly to offshore wind turbines. In February 2020, the Norwegian oil and gas industry presented its climate roadmap, which includes an ambition to reduce greenhouse gas emissions from the sector by 40 % by 2030 and to close to zero by 2050. Using power from shore will be an important way of achieving these targets.

The technology and expertise built up by the petroleum sector will be important for the development of other technologies and industries that can play a part in reducing greenhouse gas emissions, for example floating offshore wind (Chapter 5.4) and carbon capture and storage (Chapter 5.5).

5.3.4 Environmental pressures and impacts

Petroleum activities result in operational discharges to the sea and air, underwater noise from seismic surveys and physical disturbance of the seabed. Operational discharges during petroleum activities are regulated by permits under the Pollution Control Act, issued by the Norwegian Environment Agency. In addition to operational discharges, petroleum activities involve a risk of acute pollution. This is discussed in Chapter 6.

Operational discharges to the sea

The largest discharges of oil during normal operations are with produced water. The quantities of produced water and oil discharged vary widely between geographical areas as a result of differences in activity level.

Total discharges of produced water to the Barents Sea are much lower than in other sea areas. This is because only two fields (Goliat and Snøhvit) were on stream during the reporting period.

Discharges of produced water to the North Sea have remained fairly stable since 2016, and account for 12 % of total discharges on the Norwegian continental shelf. Discharges are higher in the Norwegian Sea than in the Barents Sea because the activity level is higher. There were discharges of produced water from seven fields in the Norwegian Sea in the period 2017–2021. The remaining fields in the Norwegian Sea are subsea templates and produce via production facilities on other fields. The largest sources of discharges in the period 2017–2021 were the fields Norne, Draugen and Kristin.

In the North Sea, discharges of produced water declined in the period 2017–2021, and there has also been some reduction in discharges of oil (Figure 5.5). The North Sea fields account for about 88 % of total discharges of produced water and oil on the Norwegian continental shelf. There are discharges of produced water from 29 fields, while the remaining fields are subsea templates and produce via production facilities on other fields. The largest sources of discharges in the period 2017–2021 were the fields Statfjord, Gullfaks and Troll.

Source: Collabor8 Footprint

Exploration drilling does not result in discharges of produced water, but there may be discharges of drainage water and oily water. These are generally small and vary from one exploration well to another.

Discharges of chemicals to the sea tend to vary with drilling activity and the quantity of produced water, and are highest during drilling.

Overall releases of chemicals to the sea are highest in the North Sea, because this is the area where the number of producing wells is highest. Reported figures for discharges of red-category substances (see Box 5.1) have risen because a new requirement to include discharges of hypochlorite produced on the facilities in this category was introduced in 2021. Hypochlorite is a biocide that is used to clean pipeline systems carrying seawater. There has also been an increase in reported discharges of black-category substances, which is explained by leakages during the operation of submersible seawater pumps. A product that can replace the lubricating oils currently in use (which contain black-category substances) in some of the seawater pumps has been identified, and discharges of black-category substances from this source are therefore likely to decline in the years ahead. In the North Sea, discharges of green-category substances were somewhat lower in the period 2017–2020 than in the preceding years, while there appears to have been some increase in discharges of yellow-category substances.

In the Barents Sea, total discharges from fields on stream are small. This is because polluting activities only take place on the Snøhvit and Goliat fields, at the onshore plant Hammerfest LNG and in connection with the development of the Johan Castberg field. Discharges of yellow- and green-category substances have been relatively stable during the reporting period. Discharges of hypochlorite produced on the facilities account for 99.8 % of red-category discharges. These releases are expected to increase as the number of field developments in the area increases. The only discharges of black-category substances reported in the area in 2020 were from submersible seawater pumps.

In the Norwegian Sea, releases of green- and yellow-category substances have been fairly stable throughout the period. Discharges of red-category substances rose in 2020, largely because of reporting of hypochlorite produced on the facilities. Discharges of lubricating oils from submersible seawater pumps accounted for about 82 % of total discharges of black-category substances in the North Sea in 2020.

The operators are largely expected to replace the current lubricating oils with less environmentally hazardous alternatives in the years ahead.

Discharges of chemicals to the sea from exploration activities vary with the level of activity, and are higher in years when more exploration wells are drilled. Exploration drilling results in relatively high discharges of green- and yellow-category substances, and in several years, overall discharges from exploration drilling have been similar to discharges from all producing fields in the Norwegian Sea. Exploration drilling makes little contribution to discharges of red- and black-category substances.

Discharges of drilling fluids and drill cuttings to the sea

Total discharges of water-based drilling fluids and drill cuttings depend on the number of wells drilled each year and the length of the wellbores. Figure 5.6 shows discharges of water-based drilling fluids and drill cuttings to the sea from petroleum activities on the Norwegian shelf in the period 2014–2021.

For wells drilled in this period, consumption of water-based drilling fluids has been about twice consumption of oil-based drilling fluids. Oil-based fluids are generally left in the wells or transported to land for further processing. The only exception is the Johan Sverdrup field in the North Sea, where the operator has held a permit to discharge drill cuttings contaminated with oil-based drilling fluids after the cuttings have been treated with a thermomechanical cuttings cleaner (TCC).

Source: Norwegian Environment Agency

Discharges of water-based drilling fluids and drill cuttings from fields in production in the Barents Sea were low in the period 2017–2019. There was a slight rise in 2020, as a result of production drilling on the Johan Castberg field. In the Norwegian Sea, discharges of water-based drilling fluids and drill cuttings from fields in production were fairly stable in the period 2017–2021. Discharges of produced water in the North Sea decreased from 2017 to 2018, but rose again in 2018 and remained stable after this. Discharges of drill cuttings in the North Sea followed the same pattern as drilling fluids from 2017 to 2019, but decreased again in 2020. Overall discharges of water-based drilling fluids and drill cuttings from exploration activity in all three areas rose from 2017 to 2019 and then decreased in 2020.

Inputs of radionuclides

Some radionuclides occur naturally in the environment, and can become concentrated and be released during the extraction of petroleum resources. Naturally occurring radioactive material (NORM) is released with discharges of produced water by the petroleum industry.

Discharges of NORM to the North Sea and Norwegian Sea were fairly stable in the period 2017–2021. Most of the material is discharged into the North Sea, where there was a slight rise in the quantity, while there was a slight decrease in the Norwegian Sea. If radionuclides are dissolved in the seawater, they may be transported long distances from the discharge point. If they are bound to larger particles, they will be deposited closer to the discharge point, but may be resuspended from the sediments and transported further afield. The additional concentrations of NORM that can be attributed to produced water are small compared with the background levels. Operational discharges of produced water, and therefore of NORM, from the petroleum industry in the Barents Sea are very low.

There is thought to be some spread of NORM from petroleum operations in the North Sea and Norwegian Sea with ocean currents to the Barents Sea. However, the additional concentrations are so small relative to the background levels of naturally occurring radionuclides that they are not detectable. Based on the most recent figures for the Barents Sea, there appears to be a slight decrease in discharges of radium-226 and radium-228.

Emissions to air

Both exploration drilling and field operation result in emissions to air. Emissions to air from exploration activities are largely from energy production and flaring of hydrocarbons during well testing. Total emissions to air from exploration activity depend on the level of activity, and are therefore higher in years when a large number of exploration wells are drilled or the rig count is high.

Reporting of emissions to air includes emissions from energy production, flaring, well cleanup, storage and loading of crude oil, cold venting and fugitive emissions. Historically, emissions to air have shown a tendency to follow the same pattern as production levels. However, there was some change in the picture from 2019 to 2020, when production on the Norwegian shelf rose but CO₂ emissions were reduced. In the period 2015–2022, CO₂ emissions to air from the Norwegian petroleum industry were reduced by 20 %. The most important steps that have been taken to reduce emissions are supplying fields with power from shore, improving energy efficiency and reducing flaring. In addition, the floating wind power farm Hywind Tampen is now in operation and is supplying a share of the electricity needed by the existing platforms on Snorre and Gullfaks. There are few sources of emissions in the Barents Sea at present, and the onshore plant Hammerfest LNG accounts for the largest proportion of emissions of both CO₂ and nitrogen oxides (NO_x) to air. The licensees of the Snøhvit field and Hammerfest LNG have decided on full electrification of the LNG plant using power from the onshore grid. This will reduce CO₂ emissions by 90 % and eliminate NO_x emissions from the plant. Other emission sources in the Barents Sea include drilling and construction activities on Johan Castberg and Snøhvit, and exploration activities. Emissions to air are expected to increase in the years ahead when Johan Castberg comes on stream.

Emissions of CO₂ and NO_x to air from fields in the Norwegian Sea have been fairly stable over time. There has been a decline in emissions of non-methane volatile organic compounds (NMVOCs), which is largely explained by reduced production and thus lower losses through evaporation during loading of crude oil on to tankers.

CO₂ emissions from fields in the North Sea followed a weakly rising trend from 2014 to 2017, before showing some reduction again in the following years. NO_x emissions to air from fields in the North Sea have been declining since 2014. A switch to alternative forms of power supply has reduced emissions of both CO₂ and NO_x. Emissions of both methane and NMVOCs have followed the same pattern as in the Norwegian Sea – emissions were high in 2014 and have declined since. The changes can to a large extent be explained by lower production and a reduction in loading of crude oil on to tankers.

Other environmental impacts of petroleum activities

Seismic data are acquired by transmitting sound waves from a source located above or in the substratum. The sound waves travel through the rock layers, which reflect them up to sensors on the seabed, at the water surface or down a borehole. This makes it possible to build up an image of the geological structures in the substratum.

Source: Norwegian Offshore Directorate/Diskos National Data Repository

Information is available on all seismic surveys in Norwegian waters, but there are no good compilations showing seismic data acquisition over time and changes in the noise impacts of the surveys. Measures have been introduced to reduce the impacts of seismic activities on fish eggs and larvae. Requirements to use soft-start procedures (which ramp up the sound intensity gradually) for seismic surveys have also been introduced to reduce the likelihood that marine mammals will suffer hearing damage. The Institute of Marine Research produces maps of areas where it advises against seismic activities, and updates them annually. These maps show spawning grounds for fish and feeding areas for baleen whales where seismic surveying should be limited or avoided at specific times of year. For further information on seismic surveys, see Box 7.1.

Petroleum activity can put pressure on vulnerable benthic fauna such as corals and sponges, for example through deposition of drill cuttings. Corals and other benthic fauna can also be damaged when pipes and cables are laid and anchor chains and other installations are placed on the seabed. Operators are therefore required to survey any coral reefs and other valuable benthic communities that may be affected by petroleum activities and ensure that they are not damaged.

5.4 Offshore wind power

Offshore wind power is a growing industry both globally and in Norway. There are large-scale plans for wind power development. The EU has set a target of an installed capacity of at least 300 GW of offshore wind by 2050, much of which is expected to be developed in the North Sea. Norwegian industry clusters and energy companies are playing an active role in this process. The Norwegian Government’s ambition is for licences for 30 GW of wind power production capacity to be allocated by 2040. In 2020, the first areas of the Norwegian continental shelf were opened for offshore renewable energy production, and the authorities have since then been developing the necessary legislation in close cooperation with the industry and other users of the oceans. In 2023, the first tenders were announced for acreage in the areas Utsira Nord and Sørlige Nordsjø II.

5.4.1 Description of the industry

The areas Utsira Nord and Sørlige Nordsjø II are both in the North Sea–Skagerrak management plan area. Sørlige Nordsjø II may be suitable for fixed wind power, while Utsira Nord has such deep water that it is only suitable for floating wind power. Fixed wind turbines use established technology and are widespread in Europe, while floating turbines are still an immature technology, and the costs are considerably higher.

Norway has been involved in floating wind power from an early stage of its development. Hywind Demo, the world’s first floating wind turbine, was installed by Equinor in 2009 at the Marine Energy Test Centre (METCentre) off Karmøy in Rogaland county. In 2023, the geographical scope of METCentre’s licence was expanded to allow an installed capacity of up to 85 MW split between seven turbines. The Norwegian Water Resources and Energy Directorate has also issued a licence to METCentre for a single wind turbine with an installed capacity of 1 MW, to be installed off Bokn in Rogaland for a period of 5 years. The Hywind Tampen wind farm, which is currently the world’s largest floating wind farm, was also opened in 2023. Hywind Tampen is supplying a share of the electricity needs of the Snorre and Gullfaks fields in the northern part of the North Sea.

Photo: Ole Jørgen Bratland/©Equinor

Further technology development and reductions in costs are nevertheless essential to ensure that offshore floating wind power is competitive in the long term.

The development of offshore wind power may offer opportunities for Norway and Norwegian industry and result in technological progress and industrial development. However, it is vital that the impacts of any proposed developments on the power supply system on land are assessed and that cost-benefit analyses are carried out, including possible environmental impacts. Analyses of potential wind power developments in Norwegian waters should also include access to marine space and possible spatial conflicts with other sectors such as the fisheries, shipping and petroleum. Norway has large marine areas with good wind resources, but a considerable proportion is only suitable for floating wind power.

5.4.2 Management, value added and employment

The opening of areas for offshore renewable energy production is governed by the Offshore Energy Act, which entered into force on 1 July 2010. Under the Act, offshore renewable energy production outside the baseline may as a general rule only be established after the public authorities have opened specific geographical areas for licence applications. The Act also allows for licences to be awarded for smaller demonstration projects for offshore wind power or wind power integrated with offshore petroleum installations in area that have not been opened beforehand.

The offshore wind industry is growing. In 2022, total turnover in the industry was NOK 34.5 billion, and it provided employment for about 4 800 people. The opening of the Sørlige Nordsjø II and Utsira Nord areas, combined with construction of the Hywind Tampen wind farm, marked a change of pace in the development of the offshore wind industry in Norway. However, most of the turnover in the industry is still turnover in Norwegian companies’ operations abroad or in the form of exports.

Floating offshore wind may be an important segment of the industry in future, and offers opportunities for Norwegian value creation. Norway’s ocean areas are suitable for floating offshore wind, but technological developments and further reductions in costs will be needed before it can become cost-competitive. Norwegian industry is in a strong position to play a part in achieving this, with the involvement of both the offshore service fleet and the shipbuilding industry.

The offshore wind industry may create new opportunities for employment, and at the same time make it possible for companies that provide services for the oil and gas industry to expand their clientele and thus secure existing employment. However, the number of jobs involved is uncertain.

5.4.3 Contribution to greenhouse gas emission reductions

The North Sea countries have ambitious plans for developing offshore renewable energy production, and offshore wind is an important element of the European Commission’s efforts under the European Green Deal. The EU’s current target is to reach 300 GW of offshore wind capacity by 2050.

The Norwegian Government’s ambition is to allocate licences for 30 GW of production capacity on the Norwegian continental shelf by 2040, which corresponds to about 75 % of current installed capacity in the Norwegian power system. This will offer a considerable potential for replacing fossil energy use with electricity, both in Norway and in other European countries if some of the power is exported.

Offshore wind in Norway may also provide new market opportunities for the country’s supply industry. When offshore wind areas in Norway are opened for licensing, Norwegian supply companies will be in a good position to compete because of their proximity to the market and their earlier experience on the Norwegian continental shelf. As the technology is further developed and deployed, the costs of floating wind power are expected to decrease.

5.4.4 Environmental pressures and impacts

Pollution

Wind turbines do not themselves produce emissions of any significance to air, and it is considered unlikely that there will be any operational discharges to the sea. Any releases of pollutants to air or the sea will occur during construction work and operation and maintenance. There is also a certain environmental risk associated with the possibility of vessels colliding with wind turbines and subsequent releases of pollutants. Wind turbines also generate noise, both during construction and when operating.

Problems associated with noise may arise during three phases: establishment, operation and maintenance, and decommissioning.

At present, there is little experience of noise impacts during decommissioning of wind turbines. During construction, drilling and pile-driving for fixed foundations may generate high noise levels, but for relatively short periods of time. Noise from the installation of fixed foundations can be reduced by using bubble curtains. Noise from pile-driving is avoided if floating wind turbines with suction anchors are used. During the operation and maintenance phase, there is continuous noise, but at a lower level. Floating turbines may also generate noise from movement of the mooring lines, in the form of loud ‘snaps’ or ‘bangs.’

There is still little knowledge of how noise during the operational phase affects fish and marine mammals. With the currently available knowledge base, it is not possible to predict whether the overall effects of offshore wind farms on the marine environment will be positive or negative. Much less is known about pressures and impacts associated with floating offshore wind than is the case for fixed offshore wind, since experience of floating installations is so limited.

Physical disturbance of habitats

Offshore wind farms can affect the marine environment in two main ways, through purely physical changes and by altering marine ecosystems. Physical changes may for example be changes in water movements. Alterations of the marine ecosystem are often divided into the three types: the introduction of new structures, electromagnetism from cables, and noise from wind turbines.

There are clear indications that fixed offshore wind farms attract various marine species, and that many species feed and reproduce within the installations. They can function as artificial reefs, providing more food and shelter for fish. The development of offshore wind power may affect birds that use the same areas. For seabirds, migratory birds and bats, there is a risk of collisions with wind turbines on offshore wind farms, or birds may avoid areas where there are wind farms. Offshore wind farms may become barriers to movement, reducing available areas of habitat. Migratory birds may need to fly past a whole series of wind farms. If there is widespread development of offshore wind power in European waters, the overall impacts on seabirds and migratory birds may be serious. However, this will depend on various factors, including the distribution of birds in relevant areas, the distribution of prey species, how birds behave while feeding and their response to wind farms.

In addition, conflicts may arise between the use of an area for offshore wind production and cultural heritage interests, for example in areas where there are shipwrecks or other historical objects on the seabed. Since wrecks are static objects, conflict can where necessary be avoided through careful planning of exactly where wind farms are to be sited.

The Government has initiated comprehensive mapping of biodiversity in offshore wind areas that may be opened for licensing in 2025. This includes mapping of the seabed through the MAREANO programme, investigations of seabirds through the SEAPOP programme and the SEATRACK module, and investigations of fish and marine mammals through the Institute of Marine Research. These studies will build up more knowledge of areas that are of interest for offshore wind developments.

5.5 CO₂ storage under the seabed

5.5.1 Description of the activity

Carbon capture and storage (CCS) involves capturing CO₂ from power production and industry and transporting it for safe storage in deep geological formations. Norway is well placed to implement CO₂ capture, transport and storage, and storage under the seabed on the Norwegian continental shelf can become an important industry. In Norway, only options for CO₂ storage in subsea reservoirs on the continental shelf are being considered.

Norway already has many years’ experience of CO₂ storage on the continental shelf, in connection with petroleum production; storage began in 1996 on the Sleipner field, followed by the Snøhvit field from 2007. These are the only operational CCS projects in Europe, and are unique in an offshore context.

By March 2024, seven licences had been issued under Norway’s CCS regulations, six of which were exploration licences.

Longship is one of the world’s first CCS projects that is developing a complete value chain for CO₂ capture, transport and storage. The Longship infrastructure is under construction, and should be in operation from 2025. The first phase of Northern Lights, the transport and storage component of the project, has a planned annual storage capacity of 1.5 million tonnes CO₂. The company is considering whether to expand this to about 5 million tonnes CO₂ a year.

5.5.2 Management, value added and employment

Norway has for many years had a strong focus on the entire CCS chain. Current initiatives draw on 27 years of experience of CO₂ storage at the Sleipner and Snøhvit fields and on research and development, funded for example through the CLIMIT programme and the Technology Centre Mongstad, where CO₂ capture technologies are tested. The demonstration of a full-scale CCS value chain in the Longship project is providing additional experience. The project is also intended to facilitate learning about the regulation and promotion of CCS activities that can be used in subsequent projects in Europe and elsewhere in the world. A number of Norwegian manufacturing companies have also been involved in long-term CCS projects for their facilities.

The Government will facilitate commercial CO₂ storage on the Norwegian continental shelf by allocating storage space to companies that have specific industrial plans involving a need to store CO₂.

5.5.3 Contribution to greenhouse gas emission reductions

According to the IPCC, CCS is a key tool for reducing global greenhouse gas emissions from fossil-fuel combustion and industrial production. Norway also views CCS as an important tool for achieving the long-term temperature target of the Paris Agreement.

For some industries, particularly cement production and waste incineration, CCS is at present the only known technology that can give substantial reductions in greenhouse gas emissions.

New commercial CO₂ storage projects for the Norwegian continental shelf are currently being developed. The presence of geological formations that are suitable for CO₂ storage means that Norway can play a key role in the further development of CCS as an important mitigation measure in climate policy. CO₂ storage also makes it possible to produce hydrogen and ammonia from natural gas with very low overall emissions. This may open the way for value chains for hydrogen production in Norway and for hydrogen produced at receiving terminals for natural gas elsewhere in Europe, combined with CO₂ storage on the Norwegian continental shelf.

5.5.4 Environmental pressures and impacts

CO₂ storage on the Norwegian continental shelf is only being considered as an option in areas that have been opened for petroleum activities. Since most activity related to CO₂ storage on the shelf at present is exploratory, there is little information on the environmental impacts. Seismic data will be collected in connection with exploration for suitable reservoirs and monitoring of storage facilities.

5.6 Extraction of seabed minerals

5.6.1 Description of the industry

Demand for minerals and metals is expected to increase considerably as a result of the global transition to a low-emission future. According to a report from the International Energy Agency (IEA), The Role of Critical Minerals in Clean Energy Transitions, clean energy technologies are becoming the fastest-growing segment of demand for critical minerals. The IEA estimates that achieving the goals of the Paris Agreement would mean a quadrupling of mineral demand by 2040. In the longer term, extraction of seabed minerals could play a part in diversifying supplies of critical minerals, provided that it can be done sustainably and responsibly.

The Norwegian Offshore Directorate has prepared a resource assessment of seabed minerals on the Norwegian continental shelf, which shows that there are deposits of polymetallic manganese crusts and sulphides on the Norwegian shelf, and that the expected resources in place are significant relative to current global annual extraction rates. Analyses show that metals in the minerals include copper, zinc and cobalt, all of which are important for the low-emission transition.

5.6.2 Management, value added and employment

The Act of 22 March 2019 No. 7 relating to mineral activities on the continental shelf (Seabed Minerals Act) provides the legal basis for management of the mineral resources on the Norwegian continental shelf.

In June 2023, the Government presented a white paper on mineral extraction on the Norwegian continental shelf, opening of acreage and a strategy for managing these resources (Meld. St. 25 (2022–2023)), which was debated by the Storting in January 2024. The area that has been opened for seabed mineral activities covers 281 000 km² and lies in the Norwegian Sea and Greenland Sea, in an area where there is currently little other activity.

Seabed mineral activities have the potential to become a new ocean industry in Norway, contributing to value creation and employment and also ensuring supplies of vital metals in the future. So far, no seabed mineral extraction in deep-sea areas has been started anywhere in the world. The potential for future activities, their timing and the scale of any activities in future are therefore very uncertain.

Seabed mineral activities on the Norwegian continental shelf must take place within a framework and in accordance with requirements that safeguard the external environment and take account of other users of the ocean. Areas that are opened will be managed on the basis of a step-by-step approach, and there will be requirements to collect data on both resources and the environment before any minerals can be extracted. Thus, a cautious approach will be taken, and environmental concerns will be given considerable weight.

To protect biodiversity in the vicinity of active hydrothermal structures, the white paper on seabed mineral extraction included the condition that extraction from active hydrothermal structures will not be permitted, and that such structures are to be protected so that they are not damaged by activities in nearby areas. Plans for the extraction of mineral deposits will only be approved if it can be substantiated that extraction can be carried out in a way that does not entail substantial negative impacts on biodiversity associated with the active hydrothermal structures.

Norway’s legislation on seabed mineral extraction and its strategy for managing these resources are discussed in greater depth in 2023 white paper and the subsequent recommendations from the Storting.

5.6.3 Environmental pressures and impacts

Seabed mineral extraction is an emerging and immature industry. The necessary technology is being developed, and more information is needed about conditions in deep-sea areas and the environmental impacts of mineral activities before extraction can be started.

The area that has been opened for seabed mineral activities contains both sulphides and manganese crusts. Sulphides are formed at active hydrothermal vent sites, where precipitation produces ores containing various metals before the vents eventually become inactive and leave behind mounds of sulphide ores. Inactive hydrothermal vent sites are of most interest for mineral extraction, since this is where the bulk of the resources is to be found. Manganese crusts are formed on hard-bottom areas of seamounts rising up from the seabed. Both active hydrothermal vents and seamounts are considered to be particularly important for benthic biodiversity in deep-water areas, but knowledge about the occurrence and distribution of species and habitats is limited. Mapping of species and habitats is therefore necessary to provide a sound knowledge base for any areas where there are plans to start up mineral activities.

According to the impact assessment that was carried out as part of the opening process, exploration activities for seabed minerals are only expected to result in minor environmental impacts, since there will only be small-scale and short-term physical disturbance.

The impacts of mineral extraction will vary from one activity to another, and will depend on the technology used, any mitigating measures implemented and which habitat type is affected. More knowledge is needed both about the seabed environment and about the technologies that will be used, which means that there is considerable uncertainty about the possible environmental impacts of seabed mineral extraction. The most serious impacts would be expected to be associated with local physical disturbance of benthic habitats or substrates and associated ecosystems during mineral extraction from active hydrothermal vent systems and manganese crusts. The direct physical impacts will be local, limited to the area where minerals are being extracted.

Seabed mineral extraction may also result in the spread of particulate matter from extraction sites on the seabed, and from any discharges of water used to lift the mineral resources up to a support vessel or installation at the surface. In both cases, this can lead to sediment deposition on the seabed and smothering of benthic species. The size of the areas that are likely to be affected is uncertain, and will depend on the extraction technology used, current patterns in the relevant areas, and what mitigation measures are introduced.

Seabed mineral activities may also have put pressure on the environment in other ways, for example through emissions to air, releases of chemicals, noise and vibrations, light pollution, the risk of introducing alien organisms, and the removal of organisms where there are water intake systems near the seabed. It should be possible to mitigate these pressures through conditions included in operators’ licences.

The impact assessment that has been carried out concludes that the impacts of individual projects will be local, limited to the extraction site itself and the surrounding area. The cumulative impacts over time will depend on the number of extraction projects, the scale of each project and where they are sited in relation to the distribution of important species and habitats in the whole area that has been opened. Information on the habitats and species found in areas of interest for seabed mineral extraction will be included in assessments of where extraction is to be permitted. Once efforts by the public and private sector to obtain more information have progressed further and experienced has been gained in regulating this new industry, the Government will re-evaluate whether it is appropriate or necessary to introduce a framework for seabed mineral activities in specific areas as a way of protecting biodiversity at the regional scale in the area that has been opened. The aim is to carry out this evaluation before the first plan for the extraction of mineral deposits is approved.

The findings of the impact assessment and other information on ways of safeguarding the environment in connection with future seabed mineral activities are discussed in greater depth in 2023 white paper and the subsequent recommendations from the Storting.

5.7 Maritime transport

5.7.1 Description of the industry

Fleet composition and activity levels vary between the management plan areas. In 2021, about 44 % of total distance sailed in Norwegian waters was in the North Sea–Skagerrak area, almost 32 % in the Norwegian Sea and 24 % in the Barents Sea–Lofoten area. In other words, traffic is heaviest, measured in distance sailed, in the North Sea–Skagerrak, which is the smallest management plan area, and lightest in the Barents Sea–Lofoten area, the largest of the three. A similar split between the management plan areas has been observed for several decades.

In a normal year, about 7 000 unique vessels are registered in Norwegian waters. This includes transit, international and domestic traffic.

In 2021, shipping in Norwegian waters was dominated by vessels with a gross tonnage of between 1 000 and 5 0000. Vessels in this size category account for almost half of the total distance sailed in Norwegian waters (48 %). The second largest size category is vessels under 1 000 gross tonnage, which in 2021 accounted for 27 % of the total distance sailed in Norwegian waters. Vessels in Norwegian waters are smaller than in many other ocean areas. This is explained by the dominant vessel types (for example fisheries vessels) and by Norway’s decentralised port structure. In addition, transit traffic accounts for a large proportion of traffic involving vessels larger than 10 0000 gross tonnage.

Source: Norwegian Coastal Administration/Ministry of Climate and Environment

Growing volume of shipping in the Arctic

Changing ice conditions in the Arctic as a result of climate change have triggered growing interest in opportunities for shipping through both the Northeast and the Northwest Passage. Sailing across the Arctic Ocean, for example between ports in Europe and Asia, will result in shorter transport times and lower fuel costs, but will also involve a higher level of risk. In 2020, ice conditions were particularly favourable north of Russia, and even low ice-class vessels were able to sail through the Northeast Passage in greater numbers than previously, see Figure 5.10.

Source: Norwegian Coastal Administration.

The volume of shipping in far northern waters has been growing rapidly in recent years. There has been increasing activity, including production from the Goliat field and the start of LNG production at Sabetta in Russia, and consequently higher volumes of traffic. This includes high-risk vessels, which are ships that carry dangerous and/or polluting cargo or that have sufficient bunker capacity to be included in the high-risk category. The Vardø Vessel Traffic Service Centre registered a record volume for transport of petroleum products and record numbers of high-risk vessels in 2019. However, in 2020 and 2021 there was a reduction in the volume of petroleum products transported and in the number of high-risk vessels and vessels carrying dangerous cargo. The following year, 2022, was marked by unrest around the world and the introduction of sanctions against Russia. The effects of the current security policy situation and further sanctions remain to be seen.

Maritime transport projections up to 2050

During the preparation of the National Transport Plan 2025–2036, projections for freight transport up to 2050 were made with the assistance of the Institute of Transport Economics. It is estimated that maritime freight transport excluding crude oil and natural gas will rise by 28 % in the period up to 2050. If oil and gas are included, the overall rise is only 12 %. This is in line with the expected developments in the petroleum sector as presented in the most recent white paper from the Ministry of Finance on long-term perspectives on the Norwegian economy. The volume of traffic to and from offshore installations is expected to decline in line with a decrease in petroleum activity. For fishing vessels, climate change is expected to result in a northward shift in fishing activities, and a trend towards larger vessels is also expected. With the exception of passenger transport during the pandemic, maritime transport has been relatively stable despite the effects of COVID-19 and geopolitical upheaval in the past couple of years. Nevertheless, there is a high degree of uncertainty in the projections.

5.7.2 Management, value added and employment

Management of the shipping industry

Several authorities have tasks related to management of the shipping industry at national level, and two key agencies are the Norwegian Maritime Authority and the Norwegian Coastal Administration. The Norwegian Maritime Authority is the administrative and supervisory authority for vessels flying the Norwegian flag and foreign ships that call at Norwegian ports. The Authority is also responsible for registering vessels flying the Norwegian flag. The Norwegian Coastal Administration is responsible for ensuring safe, environmentally sound and efficient traffic in fairways and Norwegian waters generally. It is also responsible for preventing and limiting environmental damage in the event of acute pollution or the risk of acute pollution.

Developing a framework for green shipping

Maritime transport is a safe and effective form of transport, and average greenhouse gas emissions per tonne transported are low. Efforts are ongoing to ensure competitive conditions for a safe, secure, effective and environmentally friendly maritime transport sector.

The MARPOL Convention is the main instrument for pollution prevention under the International Maritime Organization (IMO). It regulates releases of oil, chemicals, sewage, waste and various types of air pollutants from ships. The Convention is still being developed to prevent pollution of the sea and air, and other forms of pollution such as plastic waste.

At regional level, the EU plays a leading role in the development of legislation to reduce emissions. This also applies to Norwegian shipping through inclusion of shipping in the EU Emissions Trading System (EU ETS) and the introduction of requirements to reduce the greenhouse gas intensity of fuels used on board ships (the FuelEU Maritime Regulation (EU) 2023/1805).

At national level, the Government is working on various measures to reduce emissions from shipping, for example by setting requirements for low- and zero-emission solutions. These are detailed in the Government’s climate status report and action plan, published in connection with the budget proposal from the Ministry of Climate and Environment (Prop. 1 S (2023–2024)).

Value added and employment

Shipping has a long history in Norway, and the Norwegian maritime industry has over time developed into a complete maritime value chain including shipowners, shipyards, equipment suppliers and service providers. The maritime industry plays a key role in Norwegian ocean industries and the Norwegian business sector, and makes a contribution to value creation and employment throughout Norway. Businesses operate along the entire Norwegian coast, and therefore depend on maritime transport to meet their needs for freight transport both nationally and internationally.

5.7.3 Contribution to greenhouse gas emission reductions

In 2021, overall CO₂ emissions from all shipping in Norwegian waters totalled 9 156 513 tonnes. This was a small rise (2.3 %) from 2020, when emissions from shipping totalled 8 950 591 tonnes CO₂. Almost 53 % of the total in 2021 was released in the North Sea–Skagerrak area, the smallest but most heavily trafficked of the management plan areas, while the corresponding figures for the Norwegian Sea and the Barents Sea–Lofoten area were 26 % and 21 % respectively.

Source: ASKO/Green Shipping Programme

The Government’s ambition of halving emissions from domestic shipping and fisheries by 2030 compared with the 2005 level was included in a white paper on the maritime industry (Meld. St. 10 (2020–2021)). DNV GL publishes an annual barometer for the green transition in the shipping sector, which shows that the pace of change must be increased substantially to achieve this ambition. For the transition to succeed, ships must be built using zero-emission solutions and climate-friendly fuels must be made available. Many ports have already developed shore power systems and taken new technology into use to cut emissions. Various types of support are being used to facilitate the transition, including grant schemes through Enova and high-risk loans administered by Innovation Norway. The loan scheme applies to purchases of zero- and low-emission vessels and investments in existing vessels that are refitted to lower their emissions.

The global transition in the maritime industry has only just begun. A report from Menon Economics shows that only 5 % of the world fleet consists of zero- and low-emission vessels. In July 2023, IMO made a historic decision to adopt the common ambition of reaching net-zero greenhouse gas emissions from international shipping by 2050. In addition, targets for large emission reductions by 2030 and 2040 were adopted. IMO’s revised climate strategy includes checkpoints for emission reductions to reach net-zero in 2050. In the seven years up to 2030, total emissions from international shipping are to be reduced by 20–30 % compared to 2008. By 2040, international shipping is to reduce emissions by 70–80 % compared to 2008. Norway has taken on a leading role in efforts to establish ambitious climate and environmental standards for international shipping, including the pricing of greenhouse gas emissions.

Negotiations within the EU on the ‘Fit for 55’ climate legislation package have largely been completed. The package includes several legislative measures that will have consequences for shipping in and between EU and EEA countries, and to and from third countries. The directive on the EU ETS has been amended and its scope extended to include maritime transport. These amendments have now been incorporated into the EEA Agreement. One consequence of this is that shipping became part of the EU ETS from the beginning of 2024. The FuelEU Maritime Regulation will bring about reductions in greenhouse gas emissions through requirements for progressively reducing the greenhouse gas intensity of fuels used on board ships and the use of shore power or zero-emission technology. The EU has also agreed on the Alternative Fuels Infrastructure Regulation (AFIR). This will promote the development of publicly accessible and well functioning infrastructure for climate-friendly fuels throughout the EU. Both regulations (FuelEU and AFIR) were formally adopted by the EU in 2023 and the EEA EFTA countries have started processes for their for incorporation into the EEA Agreement.

A stricter international regime and more ambitious climate targets for shipping can help to build a market for low- and zero-emission solutions in the maritime sector. The Norwegian maritime industry is at the forefront of progress internationally, and includes world-leading companies in fields including ship design and shipbuilding, propulsion systems, and equipment and services.

5.7.4 Environmental pressures and impacts

Releases of pollutants to air and water

Shipping is responsible for releases of pollutants to both air and water. Emissions to air include greenhouse gases and other pollutants such as sulphur, nitrogen oxides and particulate matter. Emissions of greenhouse gases, including CO₂, contribute to global warming and must be reduced as part of global efforts to limit global warming. Efforts to reduce greenhouse gas emissions from shipping are discussed in the previous section (Chapter 5.7.3). Emissions of sulphur and particulate matter are particularly problematic in built-up areas and where traffic is heavy, as local air pollution of this kind can result in environmental and health problems.

Emission volumes rise with the increase in distances sailed, though not to the same extent. NO_x and CO₂ are clearly the dominant components of emissions to air. Operating discharges to water (oil in bilge water, waste from oil and chemical cargoes, sewage, and waste and cargo residues) are strictly regulated and the requirements are being gradually tightened. Shipping also causes plastic pollution through marine litter, and spreads pollutants including hazardous substances and microplastics through wear and tear on paint and antifouling systems.

Source: Norwegian Coastal Administration

Emission figures for other pollutants show that there was almost no change in emissions in the period 2017–2021. The only exception is SO₂ emissions, which were almost halved during this period. The main explanation for this change is the introduction of new rules on the sulphur content of fuels in the North Sea area.

The North Sea has been designated as an emission control area (ECA), as defined by IMO, for emissions of sulphur oxides (SO_x) emissions for many years, and from 1 January 2015 the maximum sulphur content of fuel used in this area was reduced to no more than 0.10 %. From 1 January 2021, NO_x emissions have also been regulated in the North Sea ECA. This means that any ships whose construction began on or after that date and that operate in the area will have to comply with stricter NO_x emission limits. Norway is preparing a possible application to establish an ECA north of 62 ^oN, since the area designated as the North Sea ECA only extends to 62 ^oN.

Ships’ biofouling and the spread of alien species

Another major environmental problem associated with shipping is biofouling of ships’ hulls resulting in the spread of alien marine species. The introduction of alien marine species can have serious negative impacts on marine ecosystems. One recent example is the carpet sea squirt (Didemnum vexillum), which has been introduced to and become established along the Norwegian coast. In 2023, IMO adopted revised guidelines for the control and management of ships’ biofouling. These are intended to prevent biofouling and the further spread of alien species through inspection routines and cleaning procedures to be followed if biofouling is observed. Norway played a leading role in the revision of the guidelines, and is now seeking the establishment of binding international legislation to prevent biofouling and the further spread of alien species.

Underwater noise

Shipping has been identified as the most important source of continuous anthropogenic noise in the oceans. Marine organisms have been shown to respond to sounds, and in some cases, noise of anthropogenic origin may have severe negative effects, including disturbance and in the most serious cases, physical injury. Underwater noise and its effects on marine life and ecosystems are not currently subject to IMO regulatory measures, but guidelines for the reduction of underwater noise from commercial shipping (MEPC.1/Circ.833) have been prepared and are now being revised. At present, noise reduction technologies are only used on naval and research vessels and some fishing vessels.

Several studies of anthropogenic noise have been carried out in the North Sea and Baltic Sea, and tools have been developed for modelling noise from specific sources such as shipping, based on noise signatures linked to AIS data. No corresponding tools are available for waters further north (the Norwegian Sea and Barents Sea).

5.8 Tourism and leisure activities

A number of travel destinations in Norway are globally unique, and tourism activities related to such sites has positive effects on the Norwegian economy and Norwegian communities. The Norwegian travel and tourism sector has been developing rapidly in the past 10 years, and numbers of visitors to many destinations in Norway have been growing. Few countries have as long and varied a coastline as Norway, and the coastal environment, fjords and marine areas offer great potential for the development of attractive tourism products. However, growing numbers of tourists are putting greater pressure on the environment, resources and coastal communities.

The islands, skerries and fjords along the coast offer a wide variety of opportunities for outdoor recreation, including bathing, recreational fishing and boating. Foreign tourists are still drawn to Norway primarily by the scenery and natural surroundings, and these are also important for Norwegian tourists. Tourism and leisure activities in Norway’s marine and coastal areas depend on well-functioning ecosystems and opportunities to experience a clean natural environment.

The Government’s tourism policy is intended to promote a competitive tourism sector that is both more sustainable and more profitable than was previously the case. The Government will give high priority to tackling challenges related to social and environmental sustainability to avoid excessive pressure on natural resources, the cultural heritage and local communities.

Cruise traffic

The volume of cruise traffic is highest in summer, but has increased considerably in the spring, autumn and winter seasons. Most cruises in Norwegian waters visit Western Norway and North Norway.

Figures from the Norwegian Coastal Administration show that in 2019, before the COVID-19 pandemic, about 4.1 million cruise passengers visited the Norwegian coast. Corresponding post-pandemic figures show that about 4.3 million cruise passengers (3469 port calls) visited Norway in 2023, rising to about 6.1 million passengers (3943 port calls) in 2023. Passenger numbers show how many passengers are on board when ships call at port, and are registered for each port call.

Cruise ships in international traffic release various pollutants including NO_x emissions, which have negative impacts on local air quality and damaging effects on marine ecosystems, particularly near major ports. Cruise traffic is also an energy-intensive form of tourism, and greenhouse gas emissions per passenger-kilometre are very high.

In 2005, the West Norwegian Fjord Landscape was inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage List. From 1 March 2019, strict restrictions were introduced on releases of local pollution from cruise ships and ferries in the world heritage site. These include a ban on sewage discharges and SO_x emissions. The purpose is to improve local air quality and avoid pressure on marine ecosystems. For larger cruise ships, restrictions on NO_x emissions are being gradually tightened. The Government commissioned the Norwegian Maritime Authority to draw up a proposal for zero-emission requirements for cruise ships and ferries in the West Norwegian Fjord Landscape from 2026. Consultations have now been held on the proposal, and the Government is continuing to follow this up.

The Government has also asked the Norwegian Maritime Authority to assess whether the scope of these environmental requirements should be extended to other Norwegian fjords.

In 2020, the Government appointed a committee to assess challenges in the fields of maritime safety and emergency preparedness associated with cruise traffic in Norwegian waters and adjacent areas. The committee presented its report in February 2022. The Government is now following up the committee’s proposals.

Fishing tourism and outdoor recreation

In recent decades, a large number of tourist companies have grown up along the coast that cater for fishing tourism. This has provided a boost in activity and jobs in many coastal communities, but also puts greater pressure on fish resources. More knowledge is needed about the resources harvested by the fishing tourism industry. Rules have been adopted to obtain a better overview of the resources harvested by the fishing tourism industry, and also to make the industry more professional and give it greater legitimacy.

Recreational activities in coastal waters are extensive and increasing. Summertime is particularly busy. According to a 2018 survey, there are 900 000 leisure craft in Norway. Most recreational activity takes place in the waters closest to the coast, so that there has only been limited spatial conflict with commercial shipping. Increased activity and boat traffic may nonetheless disturb vulnerable species and habitats in the coastal zone, for example breeding and moulting seabirds, fish and marine mammals. More marine litter is also registered in areas where the activity level is high. Prohibitions on boat traffic and access are introduced as needed to reduce pressure on the most vulnerable areas, particularly to protect seabirds.

Traditionally, recreational fishing and trapping activities have not been subject to regulation to the same extent as commercial fisheries and, more recently, fishing tourism. Recreational fishing and trapping is a form of outdoor recreation as well as providing food, and forms an important part of Norway’s coastal culture.