Part 2
A responsible actor in the High North

5 International legal framework

Source: Norwegian Military Geographic Service

5.1 A basis for stability and predictability

In order to maintain predictability and stability, it is essential that all states respect international law and international rules. This is the case in the High North. There is broad international agreement that the UN Convention on the Law of the Sea constitutes the basic legal framework for the Arctic Ocean. This is of crucial importance for preventing and avoiding disputes and potential conflicts in the region. Although various players have differing military and strategic, energy and transport interests in the High North, there is currently no race for the Arctic or for the resources in the region, which are almost without exception in areas where there are no overlapping claims. The High North is a peaceful region in which states display a willingness to cooperate and to resolve contentious issues in accordance with the principles of international law. Respect for international law is essential for achieving the Arctic states’ common goal of maintaining stability and predictability.

5.1.1 The Law of the Sea

With the emergence of the modern Law of the Sea came the need to establish maritime boundaries. After the Second World War the coastal states gradually extended their jurisdiction, which involved both an extension of their territorial waters and a move towards the establishment of zones for different purposes. Through its three Conferences on the Law of the Sea (1958, 1960 and 1973–82), the UN sought to codify and further develop the Law of the Sea by establishing global conventions, such as the Convention on the Continental Shelf of 1958, which formed the basis for the current rules on the delimitation of continental shelves. The last UN Conference on the Law of the Sea led to the adoption of the UN Convention on the Law of the Sea in 1982.

The UN Convention on the Law of the Sea takes a broad, integrated approach to questions of maritime law and enjoys almost unanimous global support. The Convention represents a historic compromise between the desire of the coastal states to extend their jurisdiction and the principle of freedom of navigation. Even though the Convention contains many innovative provisions, large parts of it are regarded as a codification of customary international law. This applies particularly to the key provisions on the exclusive economic zone and the continental shelf.

The international legal framework for the Arctic was further clarified in May 2008 with the signing of a ministerial declaration by the five coastal states bordering the Arctic Ocean – Canada, Denmark, Russia, the US and Norway. The Ilulissat Declaration confirms that the Law of the Sea provides the legal framework for activity in the Arctic Ocean, for instance with regard to environmental protection, research, the delimitation of the outer limits of the continental shelf, and shipping. It is a binding expression of the coastal states’ recognition of their obligations and responsibilities under the Law of the Sea in the Arctic, including their commitment to the orderly settlement of any possible overlapping claims. The treaty on maritime delimitation between Norway and Russia is a good example of the application of these principles in practice.

5.1.2 Norway’s 200-mile zones

In 1976 Norway established an exclusive economic zone extending 200 nautical miles from its baselines.1 Under the Convention on the Law of the Sea, Norway has sovereign rights in its exclusive economic zone for the purpose of exploring, exploiting and managing both the living and non-living natural resources.

In 1977, in accordance with the Act of 17 December 1976 relating to the Economic Zone of Norway, a fisheries protection zone was established around Svalbard.2 The Fisheries Protection Zone is a 200-nautical-mile zone around the Svalbard archipelago. The regulatory measures for fisheries in the zone are non-discriminatory and take into account previous fishing patterns in the area.

In 1980 Norway established a fisheries zone around Jan Mayen, also under the Act relating to the Economic Zone of Norway.3 The fisheries zone extends 200 nautical miles from the baselines apart from where it meets the zones of Iceland and Denmark (Greenland).

5.1.3 Svalbard and Jan Mayen

Norwegian sovereignty over Svalbard was recognised under the Svalbard Treaty of 9 February 1920. The Svalbard Treaty entered into force on 14 August 1925, and from the same day Svalbard became part of the Kingdom of Norway, in accordance with the Act of 17 July 1925 relating to Svalbard. Norway’s sovereignty over Svalbard is undisputed and generally recognised. Under the Svalbard Treaty, Norway undertook certain specific obligations under international law related to the archipelago, including ensuring equal treatment of all nationals and companies of parties to the treaty as regards certain activities within the geographical scope of the treaty.

In the Svalbard Treaty, Svalbard is defined as the islands situated between specified geographical coordinates. Some of the provisions also apply to the territorial waters, which now extend to the 12-nautical-mile limit. Norway annexed Jan Mayen in 1929 and the Act of 27 February 1930 relating to Jan Mayen gave the island status as part of the Kingdom of Norway. Norwegian sovereignty over Jan Mayen is undisputed.

5.1.4 Unresolved issues related to jurisdiction

The continental shelf is the natural submarine prolongation of the land mass of a coastal state. Under the Convention on the Law of the Sea all coastal states automatically have sovereign rights over the continental shelf to a distance of 200 nautical miles from the baselines. These rights also apply in cases where the continental shelf extends beyond the 200-nautical-mile economic zone. The Convention on the Law of the Sea sets out detailed rules for the delimitation of the outer limits of the continental shelf. The outer limits of the continental shelf beyond 200 nautical miles can only be determined following the recommendation of a separate commission – the Commission on the Limits of the Continental Shelf – which has been established for this purpose under UN auspices. In 2001 Russia was the first state in the world to submit documentation to the commission. It has since been asked to provide additional documentation. Canada has a deadline of 2013 for submission of documentation, and Denmark a deadline of 2014. This issue does not apply to the US as it is not yet a party to the Convention on the Law of the Sea.

Whereas Russia, the US, Canada and Denmark are still collecting and organising information about their continental shelves in the Arctic Ocean, Norway has already received the recommendations of the Commission on the Limits of the Continental Shelf. Norway submitted its documentation in 2006 and the Commission issued its final recommendations in 2009. Norway is thus the first Arctic state to receive the Commission’s recommendations.

Very few issues related to jurisdiction in the Arctic Ocean remain unresolved, particularly in view of its size. There are, however, some questions remaining related to whether the Lomonosov, Alpha and Mendeleev submarine ridges, for example, are a natural prolongation of the coastal states’ land mass and can thus be defined as part of their continental shelf. If they can, this raises the question of which state’s continental shelf these ridges belong to and how the boundaries between them should be drawn. The issue of the legal status of the ridges in relation to the rules governing the continental shelf set out in the Convention on the Law of the Sea must be considered by the Commission on the Limits of the Continental Shelf on the basis of documentation provided by the coastal states, while the delimitation of national continental shelves must be resolved between the relevant coastal states.

The US and Canada have one delimitation issue that remains unresolved, in the Beaufort Sea, and both Canada and Denmark (Greenland) claim sovereignty over the small Hans Island. In 1990, the US and the Soviet Union negotiated an agreement on maritime delimitation in the Bering Sea. This agreement has not yet been ratified as it has not yet been approved by the Russian Duma.

5.2 Borders

5.2.1 Norway’s land borders in the north

The borders of modern Norway are drawn in accordance with agreements with our neighbouring countries and the provisions of the Law of the Sea. Up until the 1700s the borders between Norway, Sweden and Russia in the sparsely populated Sami areas in the north remained fluid. The oldest border agreement that is still applicable is with Sweden and was concluded in 1751. The land border between Norway and Russia was established in 1826. In 1924 the border between Norway and Finland was established on the basis of the agreement with Russia.

There were two codicils4 to the border treaty with Sweden, one relating to the movement of reindeer over the state border and the other relating to border markings and maintenance. The practice of moving reindeer herds between seasonal pastures had been carried out for hundreds of years, unhindered by state borders. Since 1751 cross-border reindeer husbandry has been regulated by various conventions, which also contained (and continue to contain) provisions relating to grazing rights. The 1972 Reindeer Grazing Convention expired in 2005 and a new convention between Norway and Sweden was signed in 2009. Consultations on the convention were held in October 2010, and work is now underway to submit a proposal requesting the Storting’s consent to ratification. The convention will enter into force only after it has been approved by the parliaments of Norway and Sweden.

Photo: Norwegian Defence Media Center / Torbjørn Kjosvold

5.2.2 Delimitation of the continental shelf and the economic zones

In cases where a state’s economic zone and/or continental shelf overlap with those of another state, delimitation agreements are needed. Under Articles 74 and 83 of the Convention on the Law of the Sea, which relate to the exclusive economic zone and the continental shelf respectively, agreements of this kind are to be based on international law so as to achieve an equitable solution. According to case law established by the International Court of Justice, the starting point is that the delimitation line should follow the median line between the two states’ coastlines. The Court has, however, indicated that certain objective geographical factors, such as the length and direction of the coastlines, may, under certain conditions, call for an adjustment to the median line. Norway has signed delimitation agreements in the High North with Iceland, Denmark (Greenland) and Russia.

In 1980, following extensive negotiations, an agreement was concluded with Iceland on the establishment of a Conciliation Commission on the Continental Shelf area between Iceland and Jan Mayen. The Commission presented its recommendation, which was subsequently put into effect, in 1981. Negotiations with Denmark on delimitation of the area between Jan Mayen and Greenland were conducted from 1980 to 1988, when Denmark brought the case before the International Court of Justice. The Court delivered its judgment in 1993, and the agreement on the delimitation of the continental shelf and the boundary between the fisheries zones in the area was signed in 1995. The International Court of Justice was not able to consider the issue of a smaller sea area between Jan Mayen, Greenland and Iceland because Iceland was not a party to the case. Delimitation of this area was agreed in 1997 following negotiations between the parties. With this, the entire extent of the fisheries zone around Jan Mayen was settled.

In 2006 an agreement was concluded between Norway and Denmark together with the Home Rule Government of Greenland on the delimitation of the continental shelf and the fisheries zones in the area between Greenland and Svalbard. The same year agreed minutes were signed on the delimitation of the continental shelf beyond 200 nautical miles between Norway, Iceland and the Faroe Islands in the southern part of the Banana Hole of the Northeast Atlantic. These establish a basis for delimitation of the continental shelf in the southern part of the Banana Hole. Final delimitation agreements will be concluded once the Commission on the Limits of the Continental Shelf has made its recommendations. The final boundaries will have to be formalised in a separate agreement based on the agreed minutes.

The maritime boundary with Russia in the Varangerfjord area was agreed between Norway and the Soviet Union in 1957. Under the agreement the breadth of Norway’s sea territory was set at four nautical miles, while Russia’s was set at 12 miles. With effect from 2004, the breadth of Norway’s territorial sea was extended from four to 12 nautical miles and a contiguous zone extending to 24 nautical miles was established. This gave rise to a need to determine a delimitation line for the territorial seas, the exclusive economic zones and the continental shelf between Norway and Russia in the Varangerfjord area. Agreement was reached on a 73 kilometre-long delimitation line in 2007.

5.3 Treaty with Russia on maritime delimitation and cooperation in the Barents Sea and the Arctic Ocean

The issue of maritime delimitation between Norway and Russia in the Barents Sea and the Arctic Ocean was the object of extensive negotiations for 40 years. In 2010, however, tentative agreement was reached on maritime delimitation between Norway and Russia in the whole of the previously disputed area. The Treaty between the Kingdom of Norway and the Russian Federation concerning Maritime Delimitation and Cooperation in the Barents Sea and the Arctic Ocean was signed by the foreign ministers of the two countries in Murmansk on 15 September 2010. Under the agreement, the disputed area of 175 000 square kilometres was divided into two parts of approximately the same size, each of about 87 000 square kilometres.

In addition to establishing the delimitation line, the historic agreement contains provisions that ensure the continuation of the close Norwegian-Russian fisheries cooperation, as well as provisions concerning cooperation on the exploitation of any transboundary hydrocarbon deposits. Further details are set out in the treaty’s two annexes. With the entry into force of the treaty on 7 July 2011, the Grey Zone Agreement5 no longer applies. The Maritime Delimitation Treaty has resolved the most crucial outstanding issue in our bilateral relations with Russia, and paves the way for the further development of Norwegian-Russian cooperation.

5.4 The rights of indigenous peoples

The Sami are recognised as an indigenous people in Finland, Norway, Sweden and Russia. They have lived and used the land in these countries since before the nation states were established. International legal standards have been developed to ensure the participation of indigenous peoples in political processes and to safeguard and enhance the development of their culture, livelihoods and way of life. Norway’s Sami policy is based to a large extent on these international legal obligations.

Indigenous peoples are not typically the dominant group in the larger society to which they belong. Thus, majority democratic rule does not necessarily safeguard their rights as a people. Indigenous peoples have the right to self-determination both in the form of self-government in matters relating to their internal and local affairs and through participation in public decision-making processes. The establishment of the Sami Parliament (Sámediggi) must be viewed as a recognition of this. The Norwegian Government has transferred administrative responsibilities to the Sami Parliament and established separate procedures for consultations between the central authorities and the Sami Parliament. Law relating to indigenous peoples also encompasses issues related to land and water rights, cultural activity, language and education.

Norway has signed several international conventions, declarations and agreements that have relevance for indigenous peoples. The International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, the UN Convention on Biological Diversity and the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child all have considerable significance for indigenous peoples. These conventions have all been incorporated into Norwegian law under the Human Rights Act and take precedence over other legislation that may conflict with them. The international instrument that deals specifically with the rights of indigenous peoples is ILO Convention No. 169 concerning Indigenous and Tribal Peoples in Independent Countries. The Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples adopted by the UN General Assembly in 2007 contains important guidelines for further work on understanding the rights of indigenous peoples, although it is not a binding document in international law.

A number of other conventions including the European Convention on Human Rights, the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages and the Convention on Biological Diversity also have implications for Sami policy. The objectives of the Convention on Biological Diversity are the conservation and sustainable use of biological diversity and the fair and equitable sharing of the benefits arising out of the utilisation of genetic resources. The Convention recognises the close dependence of indigenous peoples on biological resources and Article 8 (j) sets out that states are required to respect, preserve and maintain the traditional knowledge of indigenous peoples that is relevant for the conservation and sustainable use of biological diversity.

6 Security and defence

Photo: Norwegian Armed Forces Media Centre/Fredrick Hoffeker/Norwegian Coast Guard

The High North is attracting growing international interest. There is a high degree of common understanding in the region and constructive dialogue and increasing cooperation between the various actors, particularly the Arctic states. As things stand, the potential for conflict is limited. This is quite different from the situation that prevailed during the Cold War, when military and strategic considerations shaped developments in the region. Today, there are other driving forces behind developments in the region, but at the same time the situation is more complicated and less clear-cut, due to increased civilian and commercial activity.

Climate change, easier access to natural resources and growing human activity mean that more attention is being focused on the High North, and that there is greater potential for both cooperation and conflicts of interest. Security policy therefore needs to be based on an extended security concept6, in the High North in the same way as in other regions. Growing human activity in the region as the sea ice melts and retreats is accompanied by a higher risk of accidents at sea, pollution, and environmental degradation as a result of a growing volume of shipping and more use of resources. Key elements of Norway’s security policy include working towards implementation of the UN Convention on the Law of the Sea by all countries, cooperation in international and regional forums, and practical bilateral cooperation to address new challenges. This chapter focuses on the need for an increased presence in the High North as a result of the changes that have taken place in recent years, and on the role of the Norwegian Armed Forces and their interaction with other actors.

The Norwegian Armed Forces in the High North

According to the Government’s High North Strategy, Norway will continue its tradition of predictable exercise of sovereignty. Moreover, Norway will exercise its authority in the sea areas that are under its jurisdiction in a credible, consistent and predictable way. As the Arctic becomes more accessible and the level of activity in the region increases, it will be more important than ever for all states involved to act predictably and in accordance with the Law of the Sea.

The Norwegian Armed Forces’ growing presence and higher level of activity in the region are an integral part of the Government’s High North strategy. In the long-term plan (2009–12) and the Strategic Concept for the Norwegian Armed Forces, the Government has given developments in the High North a central place in terms of organisation, planning and resource use. The Norwegian Joint Headquarters has been established in Bodø, the Coast Guard has been strengthened and the main focus of army activities has been consolidated in the north, all of which testifies to the priority the Government gives to the High North. The importance the Government attaches to greater Norwegian visibility in the northern sea areas can be seen in the increase in the operating budgets for the Coastal Squadron and Coast Guard, and the phasing in of new vessels. The Norwegian Intelligence Service plays a key role in surveillance in the High North and has received increased resources.

What is meant by a “presence” in the High North?

In recent years, the Government has given priority to modernising the Navy and the Air Force, with a view to maintaining an appropriate presence and gaining better situation awareness in our sea areas. Key capabilities have been strengthened, for example new frigates and new coast guard vessels have been acquired. Moreover, new maritime helicopters are being procured for frigates and coast guard vessels. The maritime helicopter fleet is concentrated in Bardufoss in Troms, with a detachment in Haakonsvern near Bergen to support the frigate flotilla. The planned procurement of new combat aircraft to replace the current F-16s will enhance Norway’s surveillance and rapid reaction capabilities in the High North. The Armed Forces’ presence is not directed at any other state; rather, it reflects the fact that Norway has important assets and interests to defend. Showing a presence is a goal in itself. Norway promotes stability by having a clear military presence and operating in a consistent and predictable way. Today, the Armed Forces’ presence in North Norway is a permanent part of the status quo. Norway must also have the capacity to prevent difficult situations arising, and to handle any situations that do arise adequately, using appropriate means.

Through the Coast Guard, the Armed Forces have well-established cooperation with the fisheries authorities. Every year, the Coast Guard carries out 1500–2000 inspections of Norwegian and foreign fishing vessels. Living marine resources are a strategic resource for Norway. It is therefore important to ensure compliance with Norwegian legislation in this area.

The Armed Forces’ aircraft have the capacity to detect oil spills. A number of coast guard vessels are equipped with oil booms, and in cooperation with the Coast Guard, high-risk vessels sailing along the coast are kept under close surveillance.

The Armed Forces currently have 14 vessels specially built for coast guard tasks. In 2012, the Navy will have a total of six new Skjold-class fast attack craft which are known for their speed and adaptability in operations in littoral waters. In addition, there are five new frigates. The Orion aircraft are being upgraded, and once completed will function as state-of-the-art airborne surveillance platforms.

The Armed Forces have an important role to play in terms of surveillance and intelligence, the exercise of sovereignty and authority, and incident and crisis management. The Norwegian model for civilian–military cooperation gives a better understanding of the situation and enhanced operational preparedness when dealing with cross-sectoral issues and ensuring civilian and military security. Maintaining a military and civilian presence, combined with appropriate capabilities and a good understanding of the situation, promotes stability and provides a good foundation for international cooperation in the region, including under the auspices of NATO. Our military presence is also essential for civilian purposes, in connection with preparedness and response, search and rescue, the environment, and access to information.

The Government will facilitate a greater allied presence in the region through exercises in areas close to Norway, and there are annual military exercises involving Norway’s allied and partner countries.

Nordic cooperation

Nordic security and defence policy cooperation has increased in recent years. In concrete terms, Nordic defence cooperation includes fighter aircraft training in the High North, and the Swedish–Norwegian joint procurement of the Archer artillery system. The Finnish procurement of the Norwegian Advanced Surface-to-Air Missile System 2 (NASAMS II) also paves the way for expanded cooperation. Sweden and Finland are in the process of joining NATO’s Air Situation Data Exchange (ASDE) programme, which will greatly enhance the air situation information available to the Nordic countries. In the Nordic declaration of solidarity, which was signed by the Nordic foreign ministers on 5 April 2011, the countries state their willingness to assist one another in the event of natural or man-made disasters, cyber attacks or terrorist attacks. Any assistance of this kind will be in accordance with the national policies of each country, and will come in addition to their participation in European and Euro-Atlantic cooperation structures.

In the 2009 Stoltenberg Report, Nordic Cooperation on Foreign and Security Policy, the Nordic countries show their intention and willingness to strengthen their cooperation on foreign and security policy within the frameworks of their respective memberships of the EU and NATO. This is part of a new trend towards closer cooperation throughout Europe, but the history of the Nordic region means that it has particular advantages. In the High North, it is in our relations with Finland and Sweden that we see the greatest opportunities for closer cooperation. The Government will seek to deepen this cooperation, in line with strong Nordic traditions of making strategic choices and following them up with concrete action.

The role of NATO

Through NATO’s integrated air defence, the Alliance participates in surveillance in North Norway and helps Norway exercise its sovereignty. It is important for Norway that our allies understand and are well-informed about developments in the High North. Norway has therefore put the High North on the agenda in NATO, for example in discussions in the North Atlantic Council, in which Norway has on a number of occasions briefed our allies on key developments in the region. The aims of Norway’s core area initiative are reflected in NATO’s new Strategic Concept, which puts greater emphasis on security challenges in the member states and neighbouring areas, with a particular focus on situation awareness, military planning and presence, for example in the form of exercise and training activities. The Government considers it important for NATO to develop a closer regional focus and to maintain its presence in the High North through exercises and training. This should be done in a transparent and predictable way that does not increase the level of military tension. A powerful NATO that conducts exercises in the High North is in no way incompatible with the development of good and close neighbourly relations between Norway and Russia. Rather, NATO’s presence should be seen as one of a number of factors that contribute to stability and predictability in the region.

Cooperation with Russia

Norway’s border with Russia is not just a border between two states, it is also the external border of the Schengen area. The Norwegian Armed Forces are responsible for exercising sovereignty along the border, and the border guards assist the police, who are responsible for border control. To an increasing extent, Norway is cooperating with Russia’s armed forces, border guards and coast guard, and both countries have expressed an interest in further strengthening this cooperation. Since 2001, Norway and Russia have drawn up an annual bilateral military activity plan. This plan helps to facilitate military cooperation between the Norwegian and Russian armed forces, and includes high-level meetings between the Commander of the Northern Fleet and the head of Norwegian Joint Headquarters, vessel visits in Norway and Russia, meetings between junior officers and bilateral maritime exercises. Russian military activity in the High North has increased considerably in recent years from a low level in the period immediately following the Cold War. The increased level of activity is not considered to be directed at Norway, but is seen as a reflection of Russia’s strategic objectives in the region. Nevertheless, Norway is following developments closely.

Photo: Norwegian Armed Forces Media Centre / Anton Ligaarden

Military cooperation with Russia is important in building trust between our two countries. Most of our cooperation focuses on the High North, where we are facing a number of shared challenges. Norway aims to further develop military cooperation with Russia, so that the focus is no longer on activities organised in connection with visits, as is often the case today, but rather on activities that increase our capability to collaborate in this area, such as small-scale land, sea and air exercises. Cooperation, transparency and predictability will enhance our ability to collaborate when dealing with any future crises, including by military means. In addition to Norway’s existing maritime cooperation with Russia, efforts are under way to organise joint training activities with small Russian military units in 2012.

Textbox 6.2 The Pomor exercises

In June 2010, Norway and Russia carried out a joint maritime exercise, called the Pomor exercise, in an area extending from Bergen to the Russian port of Severomorsk. A second Pomor exercise was carried out in the period 9–17 May 2011, starting in Severomorsk and ending in Tromsø. These exercises have focused on common challenges and solutions relating to collaboration on maritime security operations. They include a range of operations, from navigation and communication procedures to shooting, boarding operations and air defence cooperation. Several branches of the armed forces are involved. The name Pomor is used in reference to the Pomor trade, the close trade relations between northwestern Russia and northern Norway from 1740 until the Russian revolution. The motto for the Pomor exercise in 2011 was “friendship – cooperation – security”. The Pomor exercises are an important step in further development of cooperation between Norway and Russia.

Photo: Norwegian Armed Forces Media Centre / Fredrick Hoffeker / Norwegian Coast Guard

7 Cooperation in the High North

Photo: Barentsphoto

Cooperation in the High North takes place both at the bilateral level and through regional and local authorities and organisations. Norway’s bilateral cooperation with Russia is in a class of its own.

The counties in North Norway have long played an active role in the international arena, developing ties with Russian, Nordic and European partners. Norway’s northern counties first established links with partners in Russia towards the end of the Cold War. As early as 1987, Nordland county established cooperation with what was then Leningrad oblast. Finnmark county signed its first cooperation agreement with Murmansk oblast in 1988. Thus the counties’ international engagement served as an example for what was later to become the Barents cooperation.

The cross-border cooperation that has been developed in the High North between regions in Norway, Sweden, Finland and Russia is unique. Since the first Barents cooperation structures were established in 1993, the region has developed into one of the most dynamic regions for cross-border cooperation in Europe. Nordland, Troms and Finnmark counties, as well as a number of municipalities, towns and villages, have signed cooperation agreements and friendship agreements with partners in neighbouring countries. Cooperation agreements have also been signed at county governor level. Over the past 20 years this cooperation has linked countries, regions and peoples together in an exceptional way. The Barents region is considered one of the five most promising areas in the world for business activities7, and there are strong indications that investments in the region’s business sector and infrastructure will increase substantially in the years to come.

A wide range of cooperation projects have led to the establishment of good people-to-people relations, which in turn have laid the foundation for intergovernmental relations on an even broader scale. The regional cooperation is based in the north and is driven by regional and local actors. In order to realise the goals of its High North policy, the Government attaches great importance to close cooperation with counties, municipalities and other relevant actors in North Norway. The Sami Parliament (Sámediggi) and the Sami Parliamentary Council play a key role in efforts to promote cross-border cooperation and cultural exchange between indigenous peoples in the High North.

For Norway, the Barents cooperation and the Arctic Council are the most important arenas for promoting Norwegian policy in the High North. The Northern Dimension and Nordic cooperation under the Nordic Council and the Nordic Council of Ministers are also key forums. Regional actors and arenas play a crucial role in the realisation of Norway’s High North policy.

7.1 Russia

Of the five coastal states bordering the Arctic Ocean, Russia has the longest Arctic Ocean coastline. Russia’s northern areas have a sizeable population (cf. table 3.1), high levels of economic activity and abundant natural resources, both renewable and non-renewable. Russia is a constructive player in the High North and appears to take the view that its interests are best served by keeping tensions low and promoting cooperation.

Strengthening Norway’s relations with Russia is one of the main pillars of the Government’s High North policy. Developing contacts and cooperation across the border has a clear security dimension. Defence cooperation plays an important role both in terms of building trust and when it comes to the establishment of joint emergency preparedness and response systems in the face of new threats and potential crises. Cooperation with Russia in areas such as natural resource management, new transport routes, the environment, health and quality of life will also be vital if we are to be able to take full advantage of the opportunities that exist in the region and achieve sustainable growth and development.

Bilateral relations between Norway and Russia are good, and have been improving steadily in recent years. This cooperation is in continuous development and the network of contacts has grown. On the whole, relations between the two countries are based on a mutual willingness to engage in constructive dialogue. Both countries endeavour to take a pragmatic approach to solving conflicts of interest and problems, which arise from time to time in different areas of cooperation. Important areas, such as fisheries, trade and economic affairs, the environment and nuclear safety, are coordinated by bilateral government commissions. The commissions serve as important arenas for discussing and resolving challenges and for strengthening efforts in these areas.

The bilateral cooperation is based on a sound legal framework, and the body of agreements is growing. In 2010, five government-level agreements were signed. In addition to the treaty on maritime delimitation and cooperation in the Barents Sea and the Arctic Ocean (see Chapter 5.3), two agreements were signed on judicial cooperation, one on educational cooperation and one on the implementation of a local border traffic regime.

Norway and Russia have enjoyed a thousand years of peaceful coexistence. Relations between the two countries have been based on understanding and respect, mutual assistance and a pragmatic approach to solving problems. However, Norway’s relations with Russia will never be completely straightforward. Russia is a major power and for this reason the relationship between the two neighbouring countries is asymmetrical. The divide in values continues to be a challenge. There is a long way to go before Russia is a fully democratic society in which human rights are respected. For Norwegian companies the greatest obstacle to a further expansion of cooperation is the lack of protection for investments. A bureaucratic culture, corruption and unpredictable law enforcement create problems in areas such as company registration, the purchase of property, and customs and visas.

One of Norway’s objectives is to ensure that its policy is consistent, clear and predictable. This is the best way we have of defending our interests. In the long term the aim is for our relations with Russia to be like our relations with our other neighbouring countries in the High North, characterised by unhindered contact at all levels and in all areas of society. All the practical steps Norway and Russia have taken together, and that they will take in the years to come, are significant in terms of achieving this goal. This also applies to cooperation with Russia at the international level.

The Government is seeking to improve the framework for cooperation with Russia in the High North. On Norway’s initiative, a joint declaration on enhanced Norwegian-Russian cross-border cooperation has been negotiated, which was signed by the countries’ foreign ministers in Oslo on 2 November 2010. The declaration has been followed up by the development of a work plan outlining concrete measures. Establishing a good framework for areas such as visas and border procedures, work permits and customs is essential for the further development of cross-border cooperation. Efforts to follow up the declaration therefore focus on these key areas, as well as on closer cooperation in the areas of education and research, indigenous peoples, tourism and agriculture. A separate action plan has been drawn up for cultural cooperation in the High North.

Economic cooperation with Russia is showing a positive trend, but there remains considerable potential for growth in this area. Following a decline in trade between Norway and Russia in 2009 – primarily as a result of the international financial crisis – bilateral trade increased in 2010. The Government is currently preparing a targeted strategy for business cooperation with Russia. This work is being carried out by the Ministry of Trade and Industry in close cooperation with other ministries that have business interests in Russia.

A declaration on partnership for modernisation was signed by Norway and Russia on 28 February 2011. Creating a predictable business climate and ensuring protection for investments are among the main goals of the economic cooperation between the Norwegian and Russian authorities. Some 70 Norwegian companies from a wide range of branches are currently operating in the Russian market. Around 40 of these are located in Murmansk. Business development in the High North is a key component of the Government’s High North efforts. Closer cooperation with Russia, which is the most important foreign market for many companies in North Norway, is therefore essential.

Norway’s cooperation with Russia in the fisheries sector provides a basis for a thriving fisheries industry and viable coastal communities in the north and illustrates how crucial it is to establish stable, bilateral management regimes and cooperation based on trust with neighbouring Russia. The Joint Norwegian-Russian Fisheries Commission is one of the most established forums for cooperation we have with Russia. From an international perspective Norwegian–Russian fisheries cooperation is unique and extremely successful. See also the fact box on Norwegian-Russian fisheries cooperation in Chapter 11.1.

Current visa requirements are perhaps the greatest practical obstacle to cooperation between Norway and Russia. A special scheme that allows Russian citizens resident in Murmansk and Arkhangelsk to apply for multiple-entry visas without first obtaining an invitation, the Pomor visa, was introduced in 2008. This has made it much easier for people living in these areas to travel to Norway. Some two thirds of all the visas issued at the Norwegian Consulate General in Murmansk are now Pomor visas.

The Government’s long-term aim is the establishment of a visa-free regime with Russia. Working towards this aim, the Government is seeking to gradually ease visa procedures for Russian citizens.

As a Schengen member state, Norway must adhere to the Schengen states’ common visa policy. The EU has now developed a roadmap whose long-term aim is the establishment of a visa-free regime between the EU and Russia. As a step towards this, the EU is currently working on renegotiating the existing visa facilitation agreement between the EU and Russia. The Norwegian Government supports these efforts.

During the current parliamentary period, the Government will review the visa application process with a view to further easing visa procedures for Russian citizens within the framework of the Schengen cooperation, pending the introduction of a completely visa-free regime with Russia.

The agreement on the implementation of a local border traffic regime, which was signed on 2 November 2010, is an important step in the process towards facilitating local border traffic. Norway is the first of the Schengen countries to sign an agreement of this kind with Russia. The agreement will allow visa-free border crossing for permanent residents who live within 30 kilometres of the state border in both Norway and Russia, and is expected to enter into force during the course of spring 2012. The introduction of local border traffic permits is expected to lead to an increase in local traffic over the border in both directions.

The issue of work permits also poses a challenge for companies that would like to be able to make use of labour from the other side of the border when the need arises. In 2009 Norway introduced a scheme whereby unskilled workers from the Russian part of the Barents region may be issued with two-year work permits for employment in North Norway. In addition, work permit rules for all foreign skilled workers have been eased. In Russia, complicated and time-consuming procedures for work permits have long caused problems for Norwegian-owned companies. In July 2010 Russia introduced simplified work permit procedures for skilled labour from abroad, which has improved the situation for Norwegian companies as well. The Government will work actively to improve the framework conditions for labour mobility across the Norwegian-Russian border.

The number of border crossings over the Norwegian-Russian border at Storskog has risen steadily in recent years. This is a positive development that illustrates the increasingly wide-ranging and diverse ties between Norway and Russia in the north. Whereas in the 1980s there were only a few thousand border crossings per year, in 2010, 140 855 people and 43 642 vehicles crossed the border. Cross-border traffic was 39 % higher in October 2011 than in the same period the previous year. Russian citizens visiting Norway for the purposes of tourism, trade, work or family visits account for most of the traffic. The number of border crossings is expected to rise significantly in the years to come, largely as a result of the simplified visa procedures for Russian citizens in northwestern Russia (the Pomor visa).

A rise in traffic of this kind will place increasing pressure on the infrastructure on both the Norwegian and the Russian sides of the border. As a result of the sharp increase in the number of border crossings in recent years, capacity at the Storskog border station is now too small. The planned introduction of the local border traffic permit in 2012 is expected to further exacerbate this situation. The Government therefore decided in autumn 2011 to implement immediate measures to improve the flow of traffic in the short term. These include increasing border control capacity for incoming and outgoing traffic. The Government has also proposed increasing the number of staff at Storskog in 2012.

The Government intends to build a new border station at Storskog. A pilot project is currently being developed by the Directorate of Public Construction and Property (Statsbygg). More information about the timing of this will be provided at a later stage.

Photo: Aftenposten / Ole Magnus Rapp

An agreement on cooperation at the Storskog-Borisoglebsk border crossing point was signed in Oslo on 28 February 2011. Under the agreement the Russian border station is to be granted international status, which will allow it to clear all types of goods through customs and extend the opening hours at the border. The Government also considers it important to facilitate the export of seafood over the Norwegian-Russian land border.

Environmental protection has long been one of the pillars of bilateral Norwegian-Russian cooperation. Dynamic environmental cooperation also takes place at the regional level under the Arctic Council and the Barents Euro-Arctic Council. Cooperation aimed at finding solutions to common challenges has led to the establishment of a broad network and good working relations between a large number of institutions and official bodies in Norway and Russia. In this way, environmental cooperation has served as a springboard for cooperation in other areas.

Russia is fully committed to the environmental cooperation efforts, and there is particularly active cooperation on the protection of the marine environment. It is in this area that Norway and Russia have the most obvious shared interests and face the greatest common environmental challenges. The two countries are also engaged in close cross-border cooperation focusing on areas of valuable natural habitat and common problems arising from pollution caused by nickel production on the Russian side of the border. Following President Medvedev’s visit to Norway in 2010, agreement was reached that emissions from the Pechenganickel Mining & Metallurgical Combine are to be reduced to a level that does not cause harm to health or the environment in the border area. It has been decided to set up a working group to monitor the progress being made in this area, so as to ensure that the authorities in both countries have access to information about the modernisation efforts and to ensure that pressure to achieve a satisfactory solution is maintained.

A number of Norwegian universities and university colleges have developed close cooperation with Russian institutions. In the time ahead, the Government will make a special effort to promote research and education relevant for the development of cooperation between knowledge institutions in North Norway and Russian institutions. In 2010 the Norwegian Ministry of Education and Research and the Russian Ministry of Education and Science signed an MoU on cooperation in the field of higher education, and the Norwegian Meteorological Institute and Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment of the Russian Federation signed an agreement on cooperation in the field of hydrometeorology. Norway and Russia are also conducting negotiations on a bilateral research and technology agreement.

Photo: Andrey Shalyov / BarentsObserver.com

The traditional livelihoods of indigenous peoples often come under pressure when the pace of industrial development in a region is accelerated. Norway and Russia have therefore agreed to support indigenous peoples by considering the possibility of developing guidelines and standard agreements governing contact between industry and indigenous peoples’ traditional livelihoods in the north. Cooperation between indigenous groups in the Barents region will make it easier to preserve indigenous traditions, for example when they come into contact with potential growth industries such as the mineral industry.

Norway’s cooperation with Russia in the field of health and social services will continue to be linked to the Barents Cooperation Programme on Health and Related Social Issues (see fact box on the Barents cooperation, Chapter 7.3) and the Northern Dimension Partnership in Public Health and Social Well-being (see fact box on the Northern Dimension, Chapter 7.4). The Government will work actively to further develop Norway’s bilateral cooperation with Russia, with an emphasis on reciprocity.

The University of Tromsø, the University Hospital of North Norway, and the Northern Norway Regional Health Authority have cooperated with the Northern State Medical University in Arkhangelsk, the health authorities in Arkhangelsk, the St Petersburg State Medical Academy and the regional health authorities in Murmansk to develop a masters degree programme in the field of public health. The possibility of offering a similar educational programme at PhD level is being considered as a next step.

7.2 The Arctic Council

The Arctic Council is the only government-level, circumpolar body for political cooperation. In recent years the Council’s international influence and importance has grown considerably. The Arctic Council provides a forum for discussion between the Arctic states and representatives of indigenous peoples on issues of common interest. In this respect the Arctic Council is unique. There are currently several international arenas in which issues related to the Arctic region are discussed. Only the Arctic Council, however, brings together all the Arctic states and representatives of the indigenous peoples. In addition, the scientific work of the Arctic Council has been strengthened considerably over the years. The Arctic Council has presented reports, for example on climate change and mercury in the Arctic, that have provided important input to international work on climate-related issues and efforts to develop a global legally binding instrument on mercury8. Norwegian policy on the Arctic is developed primarily within the framework of the Arctic Council.

There are two particularly important challenges in the Arctic. The first of these is to address and mitigate global climate change. Efforts to reduce emissions of harmful greenhouse gases, an issue that affects the entire world, are dealt with in established multilateral negotiating processes.

The second key challenge is to find ways of managing the impacts of climate change. As a result of warmer temperatures in the Arctic the extent of the sea ice will be reduced for parts of the year. This will open up new opportunities for commercial activities such as shipping and oil and gas production. These activities will be carried out in a vulnerable environment. Any development will be accompanied by a need to find the right balance between exploiting the new opportunities, environmental considerations and how to maintain the natural resource base on which the livelihoods of the indigenous peoples depend. Thus, we need to adapt to the climate change that is already taking place, in a sustainable manner, while at the same time reducing greenhouse gas emissions. These issues are given high priority by the Arctic Council.

Arctic cooperation was established following the end of the Cold War. Its development can be divided into three phases. During the first decade, the cooperation focused on the prevention of pollution in the High North. Despite the fact that the Arctic is a long way from major industrial areas, there were found to be unacceptably high levels of several persistent organic pollutants (POPs) and heavy metals, which are transported by air and ocean currents from areas further south. This remains a significant problem.

The second decade of Arctic cooperation was dominated by the issue of climate change. Comprehensive studies carried out under the auspices of the Arctic Council determined that the changes being observed in the Arctic are the first signs of changes that will affect the rest of the world. It is therefore essential to reduce greenhouse gas emissions so that we can achieve the goal of limiting the rise in global temperature to 2°C. It is estimated that up to 40 % of the warming in the Arctic may come from short-lived drivers of climate change. Whereas CO₂ has an atmospheric lifetime of several hundred years, combustion-generated black carbon (soot) and gases such as methane and ground-level ozone persist for much shorter periods, from ten years to just a few days. Measures to limit emissions of short-lived greenhouse gases will therefore give rapid results. Smaller emissions far north have a greater impact on the climate in the Arctic than high emissions further south. Norway will therefore seek cooperation on measures to reduce emissions caused by fuelwood use and the flaring of gas during oil production. The Arctic Council is also giving high priority to measures to limit emissions of short-lived drivers of climate change.

The third decade of Arctic cooperation will in all likelihood focus on climate change adaptation, not least managing the increase in activity in the area that will be made possible by the reduction in the extent of the sea ice, for example shipping along northern sea routes and oil and gas activities resulting from greater access to oil and gas resources. The harsh climate and vulnerable environment mean that strict health, environment and safety measures will be essential. This topic will remain high on the Arctic Council’s agenda.

Photo: Marte Kopstad / Ministry of Foreign Affairs

Norway plays an active role in efforts to strengthen the Arctic Council. This work focuses on three main areas:

New permanent observers

For many years the Arctic Council remained relatively anonymous, shielded from outside attention. This has changed dramatically over the past two-three years. Several non-Arctic actors have developed their own ambitions in the Arctic and are seeking to influence developments in the region. China, Italy, South Korea, the European Commission and Japan have all applied for permanent observer status in the Arctic Council. The issue of observer status has long been the subject of discussions in the Arctic Council. Norway supports the admission of new permanent observers that have legitimate interests related to the work of the Arctic Council and that meet the established criteria. The participation of a wider range of actors will enhance the quality of discussions under the Arctic Council. New criteria for the admission of permanent observers were established at the Ministerial Meeting in Nuuk in May 2011. These criteria include requirements that observers must:

• recognise the sovereign rights of Arctic states;

• recognise that the Law of the Sea and the UN Convention on the Law of the Sea constitute the legal basis and the legal framework within which the Arctic must be understood;

• respect indigenous peoples, local cultures and traditions;

• be able to contribute to the work of the Arctic Council.

Permanent secretariat

Norway took the first step towards the creation of a permanent Arctic Council secretariat with the establishment of a temporary secretariat in Tromsø during the Norwegian-Danish-Swedish chairmanship period 2006–13. At the Ministerial Meeting in Nuuk, it was decided to establish a permanent secretariat in Tromsø. Norway is working to ensure that the permanent secretariat is in place during the Swedish chairmanship period, by the end of 2013. The secretariat will be responsible for providing support to the chairmanship, organising and holding meetings of the Arctic Council, ensuring necessary translation (English-Russian), and carrying out information activities. The secretariat will have an initial staff of ten. This means that the Arctic Council will have a permanent secretariat on a par with other international bodies of the same size and importance. The secretariat will strengthen the work of the Arctic Council and consolidate Tromsø’s position as a centre for Arctic issues, both in Norway and internationally.

Dealing with specific issues

The Arctic Council works on the basis of consensus. It is particularly well placed to identify concrete challenges posed by climate change and opportunities opening up for increased human activity in the Arctic. The Government will work actively to ensure that the Arctic Council is able to meet any such challenges so that the new opportunities can be exploited in a sustainable manner. In some cases this will mean that Council members become involved in processes in other forums, such as the International Maritime Organization (IMO), which is developing a mandatory international code of safety for ships operating in polar waters (the Polar Code). In others it will be more appropriate for members of the Arctic Council to negotiate binding agreements between themselves.

The Arctic Search and Rescue Agreement (Agreement on Cooperation on Aeronautical and Maritime Search and Rescue in the Arctic), which was signed at the May 2011 Ministerial Meeting in Nuuk is the first legally binding agreement to be negotiated under the auspices of the Arctic Council.

The agreement establishes legally binding search and rescue cooperation, including better regional organisation of search and rescue services in the Arctic. Strengthened search and rescue cooperation is crucial in ensuring the optimal use of resources so that rescue operations can be conducted as swiftly as possible. The agreement also sets out a more appropriate delimitation of the search and rescue regions of each of the parties in the Arctic, and establishes national contact points and cooperation mechanisms.

The Arctic Search and Rescue Agreement is a clear illustration of how the Arctic Council has developed since the beginning of the Norwegian chairmanship period in 2007. During this period the Arctic Council has changed from a forum purely for debate and discussion into a forum that also initiates negotiations on legally binding agreements between its member states. This has helped to strengthen and consolidate the Arctic Council’s position as the most important forum for developing policy to deal with new challenges in the Arctic.

Following the model used in developing the search and rescue agreement, the May 2011 Ministerial Meeting also established a task force to develop an international instrument on Arctic marine oil pollution preparedness and response. The task force is co-chaired by the US, Russia and Norway. In addition, the Arctic Council will consider steps that can be taken to prevent oil spills at sea. Reports on both these issues are due to be presented at the 2013 Ministerial Meeting.

7.3 The Barents Cooperation

Kirkenes was the natural place to choose for the conference of foreign ministers and regional leaders at which the Barents Euro-Arctic Region was established and the new multilateral, regional Barents cooperation was launched in 1993. The Barents cooperation has developed considerably and now encompasses a broad range of fields spanning from general security issues to the environment, health and social issues, search and rescue cooperation, business development, indigenous peoples and above all culture, education, and people-to-people contacts.

What makes the Barents cooperation stand out is the combination of intergovernmental and interregional cooperation. The forum for intergovernmental cooperation is the Barents Euro-Arctic Council. Its chairmanship rotates every second year, between Norway, Finland, Russia and Sweden. The primary objective is to support intergovernmental cooperation and development in the Barents region so as to ensure good neighbourly relations between the countries in the region, as well as economic and social development and stability. Interregional cooperation is organised under the Barents Regional Council, which currently brings together 13 regional entities under a rotating chairmanship. Troms county (Norway) held the chairmanship during the period 2009–11 and has now passed the chairmanship to Norrbotten county (Sweden). The Barents Regional Council shares the same goal as the Barents Euro-Arctic Council, but focuses on local structures, local knowledge and local priorities. Both the Barents Euro-Arctic Council and the Barents Regional Council work on the basis of consensus.

Photo: Heikki Sarviaho / LEHTIKUVA / SCANPIX

Much of the work of the Barents cooperation is carried out under the 16 working groups that cover all the key cooperation areas. These comprise national level working groups under the Barents Euro-Arctic Council, regional working groups under the Barents Regional Council and joint Barents Euro-Arctic Council–Barents Regional Council working groups. Energy efficiency, alternative energy and tourism are new focus areas. Climate change issues are an integral part of the work carried out under the Barents cooperation.

The Barents region is characterised by long distances between economic centres and limited search and rescue personnel and equipment. In 2008, Norway, Sweden, Finland and Russia signed an agreement on cooperation in the field of emergency prevention, preparedness and response, with a view to strengthening emergency preparedness and response capabilities in the region. Under the agreement a Joint Committee on Rescue Cooperation was established. One of the aims of the agreement is for the countries involved to be able to provide mutual assistance across national borders in the event of emergencies or accidents. The region’s cold climate makes it crucial that assistance can be provided rapidly when such situations arise. There may be situations where the rescue services in a neighbouring country are closest, and where assistance can be provided more rapidly by one of the other parties to the agreement. Joint search and rescue exercises are an important tool for ensuring that the countries involved are able to provide assistance to each other and for the further development of emergency preparedness and search and rescue cooperation in the region. An international exercise, Barents Rescue, is therefore organised every other year under the auspices of the Barents Euro-Arctic Council. The Joint Committee on Rescue Cooperation uses lessons learned from Barents Rescue to further develop search and rescue cooperation in the region.

The indigenous dimension is a key component of the Barents cooperation. Representatives of the three indigenous peoples in the region – the Sami, the Nenets and the Vepsian peoples – play an active part in the cooperation. This cooperation focuses on raising awareness of the situation of indigenous peoples in the region, encouraging economic activity based on traditional knowledge and promoting indigenous language and culture.

Kirkenes has consolidated its position as a key centre of the Barents cooperation and occupies a central place in the development of cross-border cooperation between Russia and Norway. The Norwegian Barents Secretariat, the International Barents Secretariat, the Barents Institute and the annual cultural festival Barents Spektakel are all based in Kirkenes, which has made it easier to build a network of contacts and trust between people.

The 2011 budget of the Norwegian Barents Secretariat was NOK 51 million. The Ministry of Foreign Affairs is the largest contributor of funding for projects carried out under the auspices of the Norwegian Barents Secretariat, with a contribution of approximately NOK 36 million in 2011. Most of the remaining funding comes from the Ministry of Local Government and Regional Development, the Ministry of Children, Equality and Social Inclusion, the Ministry of Health and Care Services and the three counties in North Norway. Approximately NOK 40 million in funding is allocated each year to a wide range of Norwegian-Russian cooperation projects involving a large number of Norwegian, Russian and international actors. The key focus areas are people-to-people cooperation, sport, indigenous peoples, culture, business development, including offshore development and infrastructure, the environment, health, skills development and education. The Secretariat’s main task is to provide funding for joint Norwegian-Russian projects, and support to the Norwegian authorities as well as to regional actors and structures. The Secretariat has a broad network of contacts and is an important centre of knowledge in the region.

A number of projects have been carried out and effective cooperation mechanisms have been established, which are being developed on an ongoing basis. The cooperation has been most successful when, as well as involving the central authorities, it has consistently focused on realistic and practical objectives, with local and regional actors playing an active role. In Norway the three counties in North Norway and the Norwegian Barents Secretariat have made an invaluable contribution in this respect.

In the Government’s view, projects whose primary objective is the development of contacts and trust across national borders can now be given lower priority in favour of projects that have more direct significance for the improvement of living conditions for the inhabitants of the region. Priority will be given to projects designed to enhance economic ties and growth with a view to strengthening the basis for employment and settlement.

The International Barents Secretariat was established in 2008 to enhance continuity and efficiency in the Barents cooperation. It has developed a high level of expertise and carries out important tasks such as organising meetings and conferences, gathering knowledge, and providing advice and information. It also participates actively in international forums and in joint activities with other regional and international organisations and has thus helped to build support for the work of the Barents Euro-Arctic Council in the member countries.

While it is essential to continue this broad-based cooperation with its focus on people-to-people contacts across a wide range of sectors, it is important to think strategically about the significance of the Barents region and the potential for further development through regional cooperation. The Barents region is seen as increasingly attractive to foreign investors as a result of its rich mineral resources and the growing global demand for minerals. As well as being a potential supplier of raw materials it also possesses considerable industrial and technical expertise. The development of expertise and of necessary infrastructure and logistics will be key focus areas in the future. Such developments could have significant spin-off effects for the population in the region. The same also applies to the increase in maritime transport. The Government considers it important that the Barents cooperation reflects these issues and that development in the region takes place in an environmentally sound way. Further work is required to raise the profile of the Barents region and the Barents cooperation at the international level. The strong regional element of the cooperation must be further developed and strengthened.

During its chairmanship of the Barents Euro-Arctic Council (2009–11), Sweden focused on the development of an eco-efficient economy in the Barents region. Priority was given to climate issues, energy efficiency and renewable energy. Norway and Russia have worked on improving energy use and efficiency at the local level in Murmansk, Arkhangelsk and Karelia. Future efforts are likely to include projects focusing on the exploitation of biomass.

Photo: Marius Hauge

Efforts to eliminate environmental “hot spots” are a key task. These “hot spots” are particularly heavily polluted areas that are complicated and time-consuming to deal with. The Arctic Monitoring and Assessment Programme (AMAP) and the Nordic Environment Finance Corporation have worked together with Russian experts to draw up a list of over 42 environmental “hot spots”. The aim is to launch investment projects in all of these areas by 2013. However, much remains to be done, for example with regard to nuclear waste, emissions from heavy industry on the Kola Peninsula and ensuring clean municipal water supplies in various parts of the Russian Barents region. A set of criteria specifying what needs to be done to eliminate these environmental problems has now been established, and these efforts are to be intensified. The Nordic Environment Finance Corporation and the Arctic Council will be important partners in further international efforts in this area.

Norway’s chairmanship of the Barents Euro-Arctic Council 2011–2013

Norway took over from Sweden as chair of the Barents Euro-Arctic Council in October 2011. The Barents cooperation will celebrate its 20th anniversary in 2013, during Norway’s chairmanship. The Government is planning a major celebration both to mark the end of the first 20 years of this unique cooperation and also as an opportunity to adapt and prepare for a new phase of the cooperation. Under Norway’s chairmanship, a new Kirkenes declaration is to be developed that reflects the changes that have taken place since 1993 and identifies the main elements of the cooperation in the years to come.

Norway’s main aim as chair of the Barents Euro-Arctic Council is to promote the Barents region as a region for innovation and environmentally sound management of resources. In order to achieve this aim the Norwegian chairmanship will concentrate on the following main priorities:

1. Sustainable economic and industrial development in a resource-rich region.

2. Knowledge-based environmentally sound and climate-friendly development.

3. The human dimension.

One of the primary objectives is to further consolidate and develop the already existing broad-based people-to-people cooperation and to continue efforts to reduce obstacles to cooperation and development. Closer integration of the Barents region into European and international cooperation efforts, as well as into global processes that are currently being developed, will be crucial for promoting sustainable growth and industrial development. A coordinated and concerted effort is needed to develop transport and logistics in the region, which is essential for future development. High priority must be given to innovation, modernisation and new ideas. Cross-border cooperation is being strengthened continuously by the introduction of increasingly flexible and seamless schemes that enable people to visit or work in other countries in the region.

In the long term, initiatives focusing on children and young people will be essential to progress in the High North. Cooperation on group exchanges and other activities and projects for children and young people play an important role in strengthening understanding between people in the region. This is something that is particularly important in our cooperation with Russia. Norway will continue to provide funding for multilateral child and youth policy cooperation in the Barents region. Projects targeting vulnerable children and young people are crucial for creating social cohesion and ensuring development and a sense of security and safety in the region. The existing cooperation agreements with the regions of northwestern Russia within the framework of the Barents Euro-Arctic Council programme Children and Youth at Risk in the Barents Region (CYAR) will play an important role in this context. It is important that high priority is given to the gender quality perspective in the people-to-people cooperation in the High North. From a Norwegian point of view it is essential to promote clear, positive attitudes towards gender equality in society as a whole.

7.4 The Northern Dimension

The Government’s main objective in being a partner in the Northern Dimension policy is to contribute to and promote constructive and practical cooperation with the EU and Russia in our neighbouring areas. One of the priorities in the time ahead will be the recently established Northern Dimension Partnership on Transport and Logistics.

The EU Northern Dimension was established in 1997 as an instrument for promoting the EU’s regional cooperation in northern Europe, with particular emphasis on cooperation with Russia. In 2006 it became simply the Northern Dimension, and a renewed policy was launched, a common policy shared by four equal partners: the EU, Iceland, Norway and Russia. The regional councils in the north also participate, as do a number of international financial institutions. EU member states with interests in the region also participate actively at both political and expert level.

The broad umbrella framework of the Northern Dimension allows us to promote projects that are of relevance and benefit to Norway and the region as a whole. It enhances our ability to participate actively in cooperation with Russia in the four EU-Russia Common Spaces, as well as in cooperation on modernisation, through parallel bilateral processes.

The Government is seeking to promote cross-border mobility. More attention will be devoted to the question of how contacts with the northern parts of Sweden and Finland can also be improved. The aim is to promote the exchange of labour and encourage more companies to choose to work in regional markets in several countries. The Government intends to support good initiatives from knowledge institutions and regional authorities that are aimed at promoting cooperation and integration in the field of research and education across national borders.

The Northern Dimension has undergone rapid and dynamic development, encompassing more and more new areas of cooperation. The cooperation is organised through four partnerships. The partnerships are established as independent entities that are responsible for developing concrete cooperation in their areas of responsibility. They report to the Northern Dimension Steering Group, ministerial meetings and deputy ministers’ meetings (every other year).

Established in 2001, the Northern Dimension Environmental Partnership remains the flagship of the Northern Dimension. A number of large-scale projects have been implemented under this partnership. The most significant of these was the water treatment project in St Petersburg, implemented in the period 2002–07, which has ensured that the city’s population is provided with clean drinking water. The Partnership has also administered a fund worth EUR 280 million for nuclear safety and environmental projects. With co-financing, grants and loans from international financial institutions, projects worth over EUR 3 billion have been supported. Norway has contributed EUR 10 million to cooperation on nuclear safety and NOK 17 million to general environmental cooperation. More attention is gradually being directed towards finding solutions to environmental problems in northwestern Russia, and projects in the field of energy efficiency and renewable energy are a new priority area. In connection with this Norway will consider increasing its financial contribution to the Partnership. Any increase will be within the budgetary framework for Ministry of Foreign Affairs grant funds.

The Northern Dimension Partnership in Public Health and Social Well-being is an important arena for Norway for cooperation on health issues in the region. The cooperation takes place at ministry level, through participation in expert groups and joint projects. The focus has been on primary health care services, communicable diseases, tuberculosis, HIV/AIDS and lifestyle-related diseases. These are areas to which Norway gives priority. Norway currently leads the work of the Expert Group on Alcohol and Substance Abuse.

Two new partnerships were formally approved at the ministerial meeting of the Northern Dimension in Oslo on 2 November 2010, in the areas of transport and logistics and culture respectively.

The secretariat of the Partnership on Transport and Logistics has been established at the Nordic Investment Bank in Helsinki. One of its primary objectives is to accelerate the removal of non-infrastructure related bottlenecks affecting cross-border transport and logistics. From Norway’s point of view, it is also important that the partnership also investigates and assesses the potential opportunities offered by more visionary projects, including the Northern East–West Freight Corridor. During its chairmanship in 2011, Norway will work actively to promote maritime transport corridors, such as the Northeast Passage and other east-west connections. The plan is to establish a support fund for cooperation projects to which the four Northern Dimension partners can contribute. The fund will be based on voluntary contributions from all countries involved in the Northern Dimension and will be administered by the European Bank for Reconstruction and Development. The allocation of funding to projects will be approved by steering groups established for this purpose. Norway’s first contribution to the fund will be covered by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs’ Barents 2020 programme. International financial institutions may come to play an important role in the development of the partnership, as they have done with the Environmental Partnership.

7.5 Nordic cooperation

The Nordic countries have differing geographical, commercial and legal interests in the High North. Norway and Denmark/Greenland are coastal states bordering on the Arctic Ocean and as a result have special rights and obligations under the Law of the Sea. Iceland does not have an Arctic Ocean coastline, but has economic and political interests related to developments in the Arctic, particularly as regards the fishing and maritime industries. Sweden and Finland have major commercial interests in their northern areas, particularly in the mineral industry and in the field of transport. Issues related to the High North are the subject of regular discussions between the Nordic countries, both on a one-to-one basis and in joint Nordic forums.

Three of the Nordic countries have Sami populations, as does Russia. The Sami parliaments in Norway, Finland and Sweden have established a Sami Parliamentary Council at which representatives of Sami organisations in Russia participate as observers. In 2005 a group of experts submitted its proposal for a Nordic Sami Convention and in 2011 formal negotiations on the convention began. The aim is to complete the negotiations over the next five years.

The ministers with responsibility for Sami affairs in Finland, Norway and Sweden and the presidents of the Sami parliaments in the respective countries hold annual meetings for the purposes of sharing information, and discussing and dealing with Sami issues of mutual interest. This cooperation is aimed at strengthening and developing the Sami people’s language, culture, economy and way of life. The cooperation was established in 2000 and is informally but closely affiliated to the Nordic Council of Ministers.

A substantial proportion of the Nordic land and sea areas lie in the Arctic region. Since the turn of the century, the Nordic Council of Ministers has had a separate Arctic Cooperation Programme. Regional Nordic cooperation arenas have existed somewhat longer. The North Calotte Council was established by the Nordic Council of Ministers as early as 1967 and consists of 12 regional representatives from Lappland, Norrbotten and Norway’s three northernmost counties. Its work focuses particularly on business policy, the environment and culture. The basic funding for the Council comes from the Nordic Council of Ministers, but it is co-financed to a high degree by the EU’s cross-border projects (under the INTERREG programme). Another council, Tornedalsrådet, is a cooperation forum for Swedish, Norwegian and Finnish municipalities along the Torne river. Norway is represented by the municipalities of Kåfjord, Kautokeino, Storfjord and Nordreisa. Another arena is the Nordic Atlantic Cooperation (NORA), which involves Iceland, the Faroe Islands, Greenland and the coastal counties of Norway (the Regional Council for Western Norway, the Executive Committee for Northern Norway and Trøndelag).

The Nordic Council of Ministers’ Arctic Cooperation Programme is carried out in collaboration with the Arctic Council. The programme encompasses areas such as the environment, health, energy supplies, research, culture and education, ICT and trade and industry. As well as cooperating with the Arctic Council, the Nordic Council of Ministers uses the Arctic Cooperation Programme to fund projects carried out in cooperation with the EU, the Northern Dimension and the Barents Euro-Arctic Council.

Norway will hold the Presidency of the Nordic Council of Ministers in 2012. The main theme of the programme for the Norwegian presidency is the welfare state in a Nordic perspective. The presidency will also focus on the common challenges faced by the Nordic countries and will identify areas for closer cooperation. In addition, cross-sectoral issues will continue to be addressed, for example the elimination of border barriers and issues relating to young people and languages. Sweden will hold the presidency in 2013. Joint projects in the High North are planned under both the Norwegian and the Swedish presidencies, for example in connection with the extraction of minerals.

Issues related to the High North will be given priority during Norway’s presidency in 2012. These will be considered in the context of the Stoltenberg report on Nordic cooperation on foreign and security policy.