5 Conflict

Since the end of the Cold War, the number of armed conflicts has steadily fallen. The number of people killed in wars has been substantially reduced. Nevertheless, war and armed conflict continue to be among the most serious challenges for development policy. Armed conflict impedes development. Poor countries have twice as high a risk of being affected by armed conflict as other countries.

The pattern of conflict today is different to what it was a few decades ago. Today, more than nine out of ten armed conflicts are civil wars between groups struggling for secession and independence or fighting for power and resources. An increasingly large proportion of the world’s conflicts today are in countries with petroleum resources.

Instability and war have repercussions far beyond the geographical centres of the conflicts themselves. Conflicts have consequences for the whole region. Insurgents cross national borders to acquire weapons and ammunition, and to win support in neighbouring countries. Diamonds, tropical timber, oil and other commodities, as well as illegal drugs, are sources of income that can fuel continued conflict. These goods find a way out of the war-torn country via neighbouring countries. People forced to flee their homes in civil wars tend to seek refuge in other parts of their country or in neighbouring countries in the region.

Conflict can also have more far-reaching, international consequences. The protection of refugees is an international responsibility, as is set out in the UN Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees. Other visible consequences are increased international crime and terrorism. Conflicts in countries such as Afghanistan, Iraq and Somalia have consequences for Norway.

The recognition of these repercussions has resulted in issues that previously belonged to separate spheres of foreign, security and development policy now being seen as interlinked. Security is a precondition for political, social and economic development, which is in turn a precondition for lasting peace and stability. Efforts are needed at different levels, and it is important to ensure coordination between what is done at national, regional and global level.

Promoting development in countries that are affected by internal armed conflict is one of the hardest development policy tasks. The security perspective is shifting from relations between states, towards a stronger focus on humanitarian aspects and human rights issues. It is also important that greater emphasis is given to gender equality and the inclusion of all social groups in both conflict resolution and the development of a more peaceful society.

The political response to these challenges is to increase our engagement in conflict resolution, provide more effective support for peacebuilding in fragile states, strengthen focus on human security through a rights-based approach, ensure a more coherent approach to peace- and state-building, and strengthen the capacity and role of regional actors.

5.1 Poverty and conflict

Poverty in itself is not a cause of conflict, but the majority of armed conflicts are to be found in the poorest parts of the world. The risk of being affected by armed conflict is minimal in the countries with the highest scores on the UN Human Development Index. Almost all new conflicts arise in the countries with the lowest scores. Great fluctuations in food and energy prices can lead to social and political unrest. Together with the effects of climate change, these factors increase the level of tension and can have a destabilising effect in the country concerned.

Source International Peace Research Institute, Oslo (PRIO), 2008

War causes humanitarian crises and exacerbates poverty; economic growth and development help to prevent war. Fragile states are particularly vulnerable and are hardest hit. The economic costs associated with war are huge. Economic development is severely weakened.

Fragile states do not have a power structure that is capable of stopping violence or ensuring respect for the law. In such countries there is often considerable potential for recruitment to armed groups. Young men without jobs or prospects for the future are a vulnerable group. They have little to lose, and little sense of loyalty to a system that has marginalised them. People who experience poverty and powerlessness can be attracted to movements that strike out against the institutions, individuals or groups they hold accountable for inequality and injustice at both local and international level. Without a functioning judicial system, there are no sanctions for committing criminal acts. Violence and reprisals are allowed to escalate without any intervention from higher authorities.

Poor and fragile states do not necessarily become arenas for armed conflict. In many countries, there is intense political strife without anyone resorting to violence. At what point does political strife become violent? And what are the underlying causes and triggers? These questions are subject to significant academic debate and research.

The Government will:

• seek to resolve armed conflicts through close coordination between political and diplomatic efforts, and allocation of funding to both humanitarian and development measures.

5.2 Fragile states

Countries that are vulnerable to, or already affected by, armed conflict are challenging partners in development cooperation. One of Norway’s development policy objectives is to help states to reduce the damage caused by conflict and to create a starting point for building lasting peace. A conservative principle is that aid efforts should not increase the potential for conflict or cause additional damage. It is important that aid does not lead to further marginalisation of groups affected by the fighting, or exacerbate an already inequitable distribution of goods between the majority population and minority groups.

Fragile states tend to be weak, to lack legitimacy in the eyes of the general population, and to have insufficient control over their territory. Inequitable distribution of goods and socio-economic polarisation are also common. Elites in these states often distribute goods in a way that promotes dependency and cronyism. There may be divisions along ethnic lines. Systems for holding political leaders accountable are weak or non-existent.

Intervening in situations such as these with a view to effecting lasting change requires not only insight into the country concerned, but also particular focus on building a functioning state. The state must be able to play a coordinating role in stabilisation and reconstruction. The need to incorporate all these elements creates a broad based and challenging development policy agenda.

Experience from countries such as Afghanistan and Sudan shows that it is vital for the international community to improve the coordination of its efforts. The UN Peacebuilding Commission plays an important role in gathering lessons learned and developing integrated peacebuilding strategies. Norway is a key supporter of the Commission, which was established in 2005. The Commission seeks to bring together all the relevant actors – individual countries, regional organisations, NGOs and UN funds and programmes – to work towards a common set of goals with a clear division of labour and roles. The integrated strategies encompass security, humanitarian efforts, human rights and long-term development.

While the UN is best placed to coordinate aid efforts during and immediately after a conflict, the World Bank has gradually developed significant expertise in managing multi-donor funds for the coordination of long-term reconstruction and state-building efforts. Norway channels assistance to several countries, such as Afghanistan, Sudan, Burundi and East Timor, through such funds.

Source Photo: Stephen Morrison/Scanpix

Previously international attention and support tended to fade shortly after a peace agreement had been signed. However, international assistance to fragile states has increased considerably in recent years. The number of peace operations has also increased. UN spending on peacekeeping operations has almost tripled since 2000. Norway has also shifted its aid focus in the same direction. The Government will continue to give priority to humanitarian assistance, peacebuilding and reconstruction in war-affected and fragile states. Norwegian efforts also include democracy building, security sector reform and participation in peace operations.

In fragile states, Norway mainly works through and in close cooperation with the UN system, the World Bank and NATO, and with regional organisations such as the African Union (AU) and the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE). NGOs – both Norwegian and international – are also key partners.

War and conflict affect women and men, and girls and boys, in different ways. Women are generally excluded from decision-making processes in connection with conflict resolution and peace settlements at local, national or international level. In response to UN Security Council resolution 1325, the Norwegian Government launched the Norwegian Government’s Action Plan for the Implementation of UN Security Council Resolution 1325 (2000) on Women, Peace and Security. This document sets out guiding principles for Norwegian conflict-prevention and peacebuilding efforts, and states that women’s initiatives to create peace and reconciliation must be recognised and followed up.

The experience, knowledge and resources of both sexes are important for creating a good foundation for peace, democracy and development on equal terms. Norway is seeking to promote greater participation of women in peacebuilding processes at both national and international level. An important task in this connection is recruiting more women to UN, NATO, EU and OSCE peace operations. Cooperation with national and international NGOs will be important for achieving this goal.

The Government will:

• contribute to the development of a comprehensive and coordinated donor policy towards fragile states that focuses on state-building in line with agreed international principles

• help to ensure a more long-term perspective in international cooperation with fragile states

• maintain flexibility in our development policy, so that we are able to provide rapid, long-term assistance in connection with peacekeeping and peacebuilding

• strengthen the UN’s ability to coordinate active peace efforts through measures that encompass several objectives – security, humanitarian issues and peacebuilding

• follow up Security Council resolution 1325 and ensure that gender and equality perspectives are included in conflict resolution and peacebuilding

• strengthen the World Bank’s capacity to manage multi-donor funds with a view to achieving a more long-term approach to reconstruction and state-building.

5.3 Human rights and human security

The term «human security» is used to describe a situation where basic human needs – for food, medicines, shelter and protection against violence – are met. This is a prerequisite for all long-term development.

Our peace and reconciliation efforts are based on respect for and promotion of human rights. The UN Declaration of Human Rights is supported by all states. It thus has legitimacy all over the world. The authorities in almost all countries would prefer to avoid international criticism of their human rights performance. Therefore a situation where the parties to a conflict agree on the importance of respect for human rights, with a focus on human security, is a good starting point for identifying common ground for conflict resolution and state-building.

Post-conflict reconstruction must be based on respect for the law and human rights. Failure to prosecute perpetrators of abuses signals that violence is tolerated, and that armed conflict can break out again. But in order to ensure respect for the law and human rights at national level, we have to continue to strengthen the international legal order.

The term « transitional justice» refers to processes and initiatives in a transitional phase from armed conflict to peace, or from dictatorship to democracy, that ensures a system of accountability for those who have committed abuses. Such processes are vital for the new regime to gain legitimacy and win confidence at both local and international level. The end goal is to create a basis for reconciliation and to prevent renewed conflict and violence.

For a number of years, Norway has actively supported global efforts to prevent the perpetrators of genocide, crimes against humanity and war crimes remaining at large. Norway played a key role in the process of establishing the International Criminal Court (ICC). The Court has already made its mark by taking a number of important initiatives in DR Congo, Uganda, Sudan and the Central African Republic.

The increased focus on fragile states places new demands on development actors. They have to take account of the fact that their efforts could affect the political power balance, which could in turn undermine a fragile peace. In this context, the term «sustainability» needs to be understood in a broader sense, where aid is channelled to areas that have previously been considered to lie outside the purview of development policy, such as security sector reform and the reintegration of former combatants.

Source Photo: Mohammad Zaatari/Scanpix

Disarmament and development

The topic of disarmament and development is regularly discussed, for example at the UN General Assembly, which adopts an annual resolution on the subject.

There are no immediate or direct links between disarmament and development. Nevertheless, governments in both the North and the South could give priority to disarmament measures with a view to using freed resources for other purposes, such as fighting poverty.

However, not surprisingly disarmament measures tend to be implemented by states that do not perceive such measures as a threat to its national security. For many countries, the situation today is unfortunately the opposite. We are seeing a trend towards conventional rearmament as a result of the increase in global tension. In Norway’s view, national security can be achieved at a considerably lower level of armament than is the case today. We are therefore promoting both conventional and nuclear disarmament. Norway always votes in support of the annual UN resolution calling for resources for military rearmament to be used for development purposes.

Weapons of mass destruction, particularly nuclear weapons, pose an obvious and fundamental threat to all social and economic development. In this context, the financial costs of such weapons are of lesser importance. It is the possible use of these weapons that would cripple all development. Nuclear disarmament and non-proliferation efforts must therefore be considered a vital supplement to our development efforts.

At the end of a war or armed conflict, large quantities of unexploded ordnance, such as cluster munitions and mines, are often left on the ground. Until they are cleared and destroyed, it will not be possible to use agricultural areas, roads, schools and other infrastructure. Moreover, refugees and internally displaced persons will not be able to return home. Clearing mines and cluster munitions is a demanding task and puts strain on already limited resources. The provision of medical assistance and assisting in the reintegration of victims of these weapons is also a major strain on the communities affected.

The Government attaches great importance to non-proliferation efforts. Norway has been an active player in efforts to ban landmines and cluster munitions. We played a leading role in the international effort that culminated in an international convention banning the use, production and sale of cluster munitions. The signing conference in Oslo was attended by 125 countries, 94 of which signed the convention. This is disarmament with a clear humanitarian focus. The same applies to the efforts to control the proliferation of small arms.

The Government will:

• promote a rights-based approach to conflict resolution and peacebuilding, with focus on human security

• support efforts to promote transitional justice and measures that support reconciliation processes

• continue efforts to regulate conventional weapons that cause unacceptable civilian harm, by promoting full implementation of the Mine Ban Convention and rapid entry into force and full implementation of the Convention on Cluster Munitions

• work to improve control of the production of, trade in and proliferation of small arms.

5.4 Protection of civilians

During the last few decades, the nature of war has changed in that civilian personnel can find themselves being targeted along the same lines as military personnel. This creates new dilemmas for all the actors involved – whether military, development or humanitarian. This is clearly reflected in the debate about the humanitarian space and the challenges connected to securing such a space in conflict situations. The term «humanitarian space» refers to the extent to which civil organisations can gain safe access to vulnerable population groups in difficult security situations.

If humanitarian organisations are to succeed in their work, they must be perceived as being independent, which has proven difficult in many conflicts. Increasingly, humanitarian organisations are associated with one of the parties to the conflict, or the policies pursued in their host countries. This is particularly a problem in conflicts where religion or ethnicity is a factor.

Regardless of the nature of the conflict, humanitarian organisations need a minimum of physical security in order to operate and to reach civilians in need. Sometimes this can only be provided by military forces, which can pose a dilemma for humanitarian actors. In other situations such help is explicitly requested, for example in DR Congo in the autumn of 2008, humanitarian organisations asked for more UN forces to protect both the civilian population and those who were providing assistance.

In 2005, the UN General Assembly adopted the concept of responsibility to protect. The international community – in the form of the UN – can assume this responsibility, and intervene when the civilian population’s basic need for security is not being met by the national authorities. The World Summit Outcome uses an expanded security concept that includes well-being. Freedom from fear and freedom from want are prerequisites for ensuring a minimum of security, which in turn is a vital starting point for post-conflict development.

Women and children are particularly severely affected when abuse is systematically used as a weapon of war and armed conflicts. Women and girls are often subjected to brutal violence. Sexual violence as a strategy of war increases the level of conflict and prevents women from taking part in the reconciliation process. The association of masculinity with dominant behaviour and aggression means that boys are easily recruited to armed groups, and can also increase the brutality in the abuse of women and girls. UN Security Council resolution 1820 recognises the extent and seriousness of the use of rape as a weapon in armed conflicts. The importance of ensuring that girls’ and women’s needs and interests are met in armed conflicts and humanitarian crises is also underlined in UN Security Council resolution 1325.

Many of the civilian casualties in armed conflicts are children and young people. However, children and young people are not just victims. They can also be agents of peace, social change and conflict prevention. Their role in peacebuilding and the support they can provide in peace and reconciliation processes, needs to be better understood and utilised. Indeed, participation can in fact increase protection. UN Security Council resolution 1612 of 2005 calls for the implementation of a mechanism to monitor serious violations of children’s rights. Efforts in this area have also been strengthened through closer coordination between different parts of the UN system.

Despite the increased focus on children, serious violations of children’s rights are a major challenge for the international legal order. The contexts of conflicts have changed. Efforts to protect children must take into account new threats. The Government has therefore taken several policy initiatives with a view to improving the situation for children. These include Norway’s participation in a UN process to create a platform for intensified international efforts in this area. The Ministry of Foreign Affairs has also funded a study designed to demonstrate why, when and how children and young people should take part in peacebuilding and peace processes. The costs of failing to take children and young people into account will be great.

Very many actors – at both national and international level – are engaged in peacebuilding and development efforts. Different approaches are being taken by different actors – at one and the same time. Coordination is vital but difficult, both in relation to basic situation analyses and in relation to more practical tasks. Failure to coordinate efforts not only reduces their effectiveness, it also undermines the legitimacy of those providing assistance in the eyes of the local population.

The UN is the international actor that has made most progress in developing an integrated approach to peacebuilding, on the basis of its experience with integrated peace operations in many parts of the world. This puts the UN in a particularly good position to play an overall coordinating role vis-à-vis different bilateral actors that become engaged in post-conflict assistance. The establishment of the Peacebuilding Commission has made it possible to plan and coordinate efforts better than before. The Commission also helps to maintain focus on and mobilise support for war-torn countries during the post-conflict stage.

UN-led operations are designed to ensure that a large number of actors target their efforts towards common goals, and implement measures that are mutually harmonised. A high degree of coordination will naturally lead to a relegation of priorities and interests of individual countries. This could be a challenge in cases where we seek to ensure a specific Norwegian profile for our intervention. In practice, however, this has not been a problem. Improved coordination has been an important issue in Afghanistan. In other situations it can, however, be expedient to take rapid decisions even though this means failing to comply with more extensive coordination processes. Certain countries, including Norway, did just that in the efforts to initiate a peace process in Sudan.

The Government will

• give priority to protecting civilians in humanitarian efforts

• support efforts to promote transitional justice and measures that support reconciliation processes

• promote the participation of women in peace processes and seek to ensure that gender and gender equality perspectives are integrated into conflict resolution and peacekeeping

• seek to ensure effective protection of children in armed conflicts and in connection with peacekeeping operations

• promote broader international understanding of the importance of giving children and young people a more prominent role in conflict prevention and peace and reconciliation processes.

5.5 Different approaches to peace- and state-building

Current complex conflicts require comprehensive, long-term and multi-dimensional efforts. While development efforts can help to reduce and resolve conflicts, they have a particularly important role in helping to bring about lasting peace and stability in the aftermath of an acute conflict.

Source Photo: Anders Sømme Hammer

There is an increasing focus in the international community on the links between the various policy tools used to deal with security-related, political, humanitarian and development issues, and how they can best be coordinated. The recognition that sustainable growth and development are vital for lasting peace is a cornerstone of Norwegian development policy. Today, the largest recipients of Norwegian aid are fragile states and conflict areas. In conflict situations, Norway and the international community encounter the full range of challenges that need to be addressed through an integrated approach to development and peace- and state-building.

Afghanistan

The UN Security Council has stated that the situation in Afghanistan poses a threat to international peace and security. The goal of Norwegian and international efforts in Afghanistan is stability. This is crucial for further development. A strong, democratic state that has the will and the capacity to fight poverty throughout the country is the best means of ensuring that it does not once again become a haven for terrorists.

The people of Afghanistan have lived with occupation and civil war for more than a generation. This has caused terrible humanitarian suffering and cannot continue. The only viable way forward is a broad process of political reconciliation that includes all the different population groups in the country. Afghan ownership of this process is essential. The Afghans must be in the driving seat, and must themselves decide on all aspects of the country’s development and policies.

Although much has been achieved – a new constitution has been adopted, democratic elections have been held, and schools, roads, wells and hospitals have been built – the humanitarian situation is still precarious. Poverty, corruption and illegal drug production are widespread. The situation is extremely unstable. There are many setbacks. There is still a need for military and civilian efforts in Afghanistan to provide the security and stability necessary to enable the country’s economic and social development.

Norway has long sought to promote better coordination of international efforts, with the support of the UN, and with Afghan authorities at the helm. At present, the Afghan state is weak, and it is therefore important to ensure close cooperation between the UN and UNAMA. State-building and development efforts are based on the five-year Afghanistan National Development Strategy (ANDS), which was approved by the Afghan President in 2008, and endorsed by the international donor conference in Paris the same year.

Although many questions regarding Afghanistan’s future remain unresolved, it is clear that a long-term development engagement in the country must seek to meet the people’s basic needs, create a framework that enables people to live secure and decent lives, and strengthen democracy and the state’s ability to provide the services people need. The Afghan people must regain their hope for the future. Meanwhile, the long-term capacity and will of the international community to maintain its efforts will be sorely tested.

The Middle East

The Middle East region faces major challenges relating to peace and reconciliation, poverty, and democratic and economic development. The high level of conflict in the region places particular demands on the donor community and means that all those involved must demonstrate considerable flexibility. The historical and political background to Norway’s engagement in the Middle East is our desire to contribute to the establishment of a Palestinian state side-by-side with Israel. Norway is seeking to ensure that the international economic support for the Palestinian Authority continues and increases, with a view to achieving a two-state solution. Our engagement involves diplomatic contact with all the parties to the conflict, and we gave our full support to the political negotiation process between Israel and the Palestinian Authority in the wake of the Annapolis Conference in the autumn of 2007.

The Ad Hoc Liaison Committee for Assistance to the Palestinians (AHLC) plays a key role in the efforts to secure a two-state solution. As Chair of the AHLC, Norway has particular responsibility for coordinating funding to ensure that the assistance provided supports the political process. A well-functioning tripartite cooperation between the Palestinian Authority, Israel and the AHLC is vital in order to build up a sustainable Palestinian economy and establish an institutional foundation for a Palestinian state. This requires close cooperation with the Palestinian Authority with regard to its own development plans and priorities. At the same time, it is necessary to maintain a dialogue with Israel on reducing obstacles to economic growth in the Palestinian Territory. Israeli settlements in the occupied areas are in violation of international law, and constitute a serious obstacle to the development of a Palestinian state. The Quartet, which is made up of the US, Russia, the UN and the EU, is an important partner for Norway in this context, and in the efforts to negotiate a final status agreement. Development measures must be implemented hand-in-hand with diplomatic and political processes.

Norway has long warned of the humanitarian and political consequences of keeping Gaza cut off from the rest of the world. The war in Gaza at the end of 2008 and beginning of 2009 has highlighted the gravity of the situation. There is a major need for humanitarian efforts in Gaza. Norway will play a leading role as AHLC Chair. The situation in Gaza underlines the need for Palestinian reconciliation, for building a Palestinian state and bringing the occupation to an end. Norway supports a two-state solution. This is the only way to ensure lasting peace for both Israelis and Palestinians. This goal can only be achieved through a combination of humanitarian, diplomatic and political measures, in other words, through an integrated approach that ensures human security in the short term and works towards political solutions in a more long-term perspective.

Sudan

Sudan has been ravaged by civil war since it gained independence in 1956. Protracted conflicts during this period have created an ongoing humanitarian disaster. More than two million people have been killed in Southern Sudan, and nearly four million are directly threatened by the war in Darfur. More than five million have had to flee their homes. Norway has had an extensive engagement in Sudan since 1970. This has included both aid and support for peace and reconciliation efforts.

Norwegian NGOs and academic institutions that have a long-standing engagement in Sudan have helped to provide Norway with a network in the country. Key organisations in this respect are Norwegian Church Aid, Norwegian People’s Aid, the Chr. Michelsen Institute and the University of Bergen.

Norway has helped to facilitate three peace agreements in Sudan: 1) the Comprehensive Peace Agreement (CPA) of 2005, which put an end to the war between the north and the south, and forms the basis for all other peace agreements in Sudan; 2) the Darfur Peace Agreement of 2006, which did not succeed in settling the conflict in the region; and 3) the Eastern Sudan Peace Agreement of 2006, which so far has prevented the conflict from spreading into Eastern Sudan. Since the signing of the CPA, Norway has opened an embassy in Khartoum and a consulate general in Juba, and we are also represented in the Joint Donor Office in Juba. In 2007, Norwegian aid to Sudan amounted to NOK 700 million, and was disbursed via a large number of different channels.

Norwegian aid efforts in Sudan face a number of challenges. Sudan is the largest country in Africa in terms of area. There is a great deal of tension between the centre and the periphery. The peace agreement is fragile. Attempts to implement a peace agreement in Darfur floundered because important groups never signed up to it. Subsequent attempts to find a political solution have not succeeded. Fighting and abuses continue in Darfur, and the humanitarian situation is extremely serious. There are 2.5 million internally displaced persons (IDPs) who are still unable to return to their homes. In addition to the IDPs who receive humanitarian assistance, a large proportion of the remaining population in Darfur depend on aid to survive.

In Southern Sudan too, the conflict has had major social consequences. Millions of refugees and IDPs want to return to their homes. Tens of thousands of soldiers have to be demobilised and disarmed. Infrastructure has to be built up. This creates a huge need for capacity- and democracy-building, and anti-corruption efforts. Most of Norway’s reconstruction aid is channelled through the World Bank’s multi-donor trust fund, which facilitates quality assurance and reduces the risk of corruption. However efforts such as these are associated with considerable bureaucracy, and it may take some time before concrete results are achieved. It is therefore important to channel aid through NGOs as well, in order to promote development in the vulnerable transition stage following a peace agreement.

So far, the efforts to improve donor coordination through the Joint Donor Office have not produced the desired results. A small, but important part of Norway’s efforts are channelled through the Oil for Development initiative. The oil discoveries in Sudan were one of the most important causes of the conflict. By helping to develop a common knowledge base for the north and south, and building capacity in relation to the management of oil revenues in the south, we can help to reduce tension and prepare the ground for long-term, sustainable growth on the basis of the country’s own resources. It is also very important to support the development of democracy by providing assistance with the preparations for the 2009 election, and helping to transform the Sudan People’s Liberation Movement from a guerrilla army into a political party. The humanitarian needs in Sudan are still enormous. In connection with the follow-up to the donor conferences in Oslo in 2005 and 2008, Norway has stepped up its support for initiatives under the United Nations Development Fund for Women (UNIFEM) to promote Sudanese women’s access to paid work and opportunities to take part in political decision-making processes.

The civil war in Sudan has long been a forgotten conflict that has received little international attention. Today, there is stronger international focus on the conflict. Norway is working closely with other countries to bring about peace. Darfur is regularly on the agendas of the UN Security Council and the African Union. Norwegian efforts must therefore be seen in the context of a broad international effort to create peace in Sudan and prevent further conflict in the region.

Sri Lanka

Since 2000, Norway has acted as facilitator in negotiations between the Sri Lankan Government and the Tamil Tigers. In February 2002, the parties signed a mutual ceasefire agreement following a process that Norway was involved in. The ceasefire led to a dramatic reduction in the number of people killed in the conflict. As many as 10 000 lives may have been saved in the first three years following the signing of the agreement. The human rights situation improved. People enjoyed freedom of movement, economic growth and development. The agreement also resulted in massive international support for peacebuilding in Sri Lanka.

Despite a breakdown in negotiations in April 2003, the parties formally upheld the ceasefire until January 2008. However, violations of the agreement increased significantly from 2006. Despite repeated attempts to strengthen the implementation of the ceasefire agreement and revive negotiations, the conflict is now extremely violent.

Norway will honour its commitments, and has a long-term perspective regarding its engagement in Sri Lanka. It is the parties and the people of Sri Lanka themselves who must find the political solution. Norway will support attempts to find political solutions that are acceptable to all ethnic groups and enable them to live together peacefully.

Despite the escalation of hostilities, Norway is in close contact with both parties, in order to maintain open channels for dialogue. Norway is prepared to assist the parties for as long as they request Norwegian assistance and are willing to negotiate. If negotiations between the parties were to be resumed, it is difficult to say exactly what role Norway would have. Norway is cooperating closely with India, the US, the EU and Japan in its engagement in Sri Lanka.

The most important thing for Norway to do in this situation is to use its position to help to ensure that the civilians who are caught up in the conflict receive the international humanitarian assistance they are entitled to.

Nepal

Norway’s support for the Nepalese peace process focused on such measures as providing meeting places for the various actors and sharing Norwegian experience and expertise. The approach taken by Norway was guided at all times by Nepalese requests and needs. The Norwegian Embassy in Kathmandu was frequently used as an arena in these efforts, where the themes and approaches changed in pace with the different phases of the peace process. The Embassy was also a meeting place for government representatives and the political parties under the monarchy, and for the political parties and the Maoists prior to the peace agreement of November 2006. The Embassy was also used as an arena for meetings between representatives of the political parties and key international actors. This was a particularly valuable function in the period leading up to the election, when certain Western countries would not otherwise have had the opportunity to meet representatives of the Maoist movement. Norwegian election expertise was made available in connection with the political parties’ and other actors’ preparations for the election of the Constituent Assembly in 2008.

Another important initiative in terms of creating a meeting place was the courses held at the National College of Defence in Norway, which were attended by members of both the Nepalese and the Maoist armies.

Political efforts were underpinned by financial support. In order to provide the best possible assistance in the peace process, funding was provided both to meet immediate needs in connection with the implementation of the peace agreement and for medium-term measures under the auspices of the authorities and the UN system. Great emphasis was placed on supporting measures that would give the Nepalese people a peace dividend and thus strengthen popular support for the peace process.

Burundi

The purpose of the Norwegian engagement in Burundi is to support the peace process and ensure that the country does not fall back into conflict. The ceasefire between the Government and the PALIPEHUTU (National Forces of Liberation) has provided a basis for peace. However there seems to be little progress in negotiations between the parties. Burundi is on the agenda of the UN Peacebuilding Commission, and Norway led the Commission’s efforts in the country up to June 2008. Meeting expectations in terms of peacebuilding and ensuring sufficient resources for development are challenging tasks. Experience has shown that Burundi’s problems are not just due to a lack of resources but also, and to a considerable extent, to the need for an inclusive, democratic political culture.

A difficult economic situation, with rising food and oil prices, is creating new unrest. Norway provides considerable budget support to Burundi, which is channelled through the World Bank. Budget support, together with other measures, will enable the Government to take action to improve conditions for the poor. Budget support is vital to enable the authorities to implement their poverty reduction strategy. The way this money is used is followed up through an agreed system to monitor performance in relation to the poverty reduction strategy.

The Government will:

• support state-building, democratisation, and the development of civil society and the private sector in weak, fragile states

• seek to ensure that aid helps to reduce the use of violence in conflict situations

• seek to prevent violent conflict from flaring up again in countries that have recently emerged from a conflict situation

• provide support for security sector reform in state-building processes

• support initiatives to improve understanding between faith groups and between religious leaders.

5.6 Regional actors and cooperation on conflict prevention

All conflicts have consequences beyond the geographical areas that are directly affected. Good relations, and cooperation on development issues between countries in the region are important for reducing the risk of violent conflict. The Middle East is the most obvious example of how a conflict can have regional spill-over effects. The conflict in Afghanistan also has far-reaching consequences, particularly in relation to Pakistan. The many conflicts in Africa confirm the validity of this principle.

The poorest countries are becoming increasingly aware of the links between natural disasters, supply crises and conflict. In Africa, there is growing recognition of the fact that the continent will not be able to achieve peace, stability and development without broad political and economic cooperation. This is also the only way the continent will be able to help to meet the major global environmental challenges.

The Horn of Africa is particularly vulnerable to drought and flooding. The situation is being exacerbated by the conflicts in the region. In some areas, the pattern of conflict is so complex, and the security situation so precarious, that it is difficult for humanitarian actors to gain access to those in need. In recent years, rising food prices and rapid population growth have aggravated an already difficult food supply situation. Norway is following the situation, and is providing support in the form of short-term humanitarian assistance and long-term measures to improve the management of natural resources and increase food security. These efforts are being undertaken in close collaboration with national and local authorities, NGOs and the UN system. It is expected that they will be stepped up in the years ahead. Such efforts help to prevent the outbreak of open, armed conflict and to mitigate existing conflicts.

In 2002, the Organisation of African Unity (OAU) was transformed into the African Union (AU). The AU has a broad and ambitious mandate that includes the right to intervene in the event of war or conflict between or within individual African states. The New Partnership for Africa’s Development (NEPAD) was set up at the same time as the AU was established. NEPAD focuses on the development of democracy, the rule of law and good governance as crucial factors for economic development and stability.

Norway has actively supported measures to strengthen cooperation between countries on the African continent. In recent years, the AU has taken on increasing responsibilities in connection with conflict resolution, and Norway has provided support for various forms of capacity-building in this field. However, the AU is still a relatively weak organisation, and depends on international support for the peace operations led by the AU. Efforts are now being made to establish an African Standby Force. Norway is contributing to these efforts, for example by providing training for civilian police officers who are to take part in stabilisation and peace operations.

The Government will:

• take a particular responsibility for building knowledge about integrated approaches to peacekeeping and peacebuilding, and making this knowledge available to the UN and regional actors

• provide assistance in connection with peacekeeping operations under the auspices of regional organisations, including assistance for competence- and capacity-building in these organisations as necessary.