2 Video games as a medium

2.1 Introduction

In this chapter, the Ministry provides a brief introduction to the video game medium from the perspective of history, game genres, production and technology. The various concepts are explained. This, in conjunction with chapter 3, forms the basis of the discussions in the subsequent chapters of the report.

First we will provide a brief introduction to the history of video games. We will then present the various types and game genres. Finally, we will review the various stages of game development and present the various technological platforms used for games. The chapter explains concepts that are usual in game development.

2.2 The history of video games

The history of video games as a medium is relatively short. The first electronic games were developed in research institutions in the USA in the 1950s. These games were not intended for the commercial market, but were only for internal use in educational and research institutions.

The breakthrough for video games as a commercial phenomenon came in 1972 with the game Pong , a simple tennis game that was played on special game machines in shopping centres, fun fairs and game arcades. This was followed by a number of games of the same type, and the groundwork was laid for what was to become a major entertainment industry.

Two developments in particular played a central role in the spread of the video game medium to a greater public. Firstly, a number of companies developed game consoles that could be connected directly to a television, From this is derived the term TV games or video games. This simplified use for the majority of people, and resulted in the use of video games in the home. Secondly, it became usual for people to have PCs at home, and home PCs were increasingly used for playing video games.

The game market developed explosively during the 1980s. The market for game arcades died gradually out, and developments were concentrated on the systems in current use: PC games and special game consoles. From the end of the 1980s, game consoles included hand-held machines following the introduction in 1989 of Game Boy by the Japanese company Nintendo.

In pace with the spread of the Internet during the 1990s, a number of games appeared that allowed playing over the Net – so-called online games.

Both PCs and game consoles received increasingly powerful hardware, which enabled more advanced games and better graphic quality. The demand for high-quality graphics has resulted in the game industry driving the development of powerful hardware for home PCs and increasingly technically advanced consoles. In 1994, the Japanese electronics manufacturer Sony launched the console PlayStation, which has sold over 100 million units. After the turn of the millennium, the major participants on the market have increasingly developed new game consoles.

In the 1990s, the game market developed into an entertainment industry of Hollywood format, with increasingly larger budgets and consolidation of the largest stakeholders in game development, distribution and console production. In the development and distribution of video games, a group of American, Japanese and European companies gradually became market leaders. The console market is currently dominated by the companies Sony, Nintendo and Microsoft.

2.3 Types and game genres

In the course of the brief history of video games, a number of different game genres have developed. Games can be classified in genres based on actions performed during play (e.g. “shooting games”), topic (e.g. “football games”), who plays them (e.g. “children’s games”), etc. It may therefore be difficult to find standard definitions of the genres. Moreover, many video games are hybrids of different genres. Table 2.1 shows a simplified overview of the ten best known game genres.

Most game genres include both single-player and multi-player modes. A number of games are also connected to the Internet. This particularly applies to strategy games and role-playing games.

The illustration shows a screen picture of the video game Elias. Operation Lunvik . The video game on the rescue boat Elias has been developed by the Norwegian company Artplant and released by PAN Vision. Elias is a typical example of simple children’s games based on a familiar character from another medium. The film company Filmkameratene AS has produced both a full-length movie and a TV series based on stories about Elias.

Source Artplant

2.3.1 Massive Multiplayer Online Role Playing Games (MMORPG)

Massive Multiplayer Online Role Playing Games, abbreviated MMORPG, has become a major genre in recent years. This variation on the traditional role-playing games is played online on the Internet, and has millions of players world-wide. The game manufacturer Blizzard’s World of Warcraft is currently the world’s largest MMORPG, with approximately 9 million players world-wide. In Norway alone as per September 2007, there are approximately 90 000 registered subscribers. The difference between online role-playing games and other types of game is that they take place “live”. An ordinary video game can be temporarily interrupted without the action of the game continuing. In an online universe, the action always continues. This factor is instrumental in motivating players to remain logged on for as long as possible. Another important factor is that the player interacts with other players who are online and that players are members of so-called “clans”. This motivates players to take part in the game.

2.3.2 Social games

In recent years, we have seen rapid development of a number of social games, such as Eyetoy, Buzz, Guitar Hero , and SingStar . This is a game genre where the social aspect is of central importance, and the aim is to include all types of players. Social games are well suited for family and friends to play together. With the help, for example, of hand controls and dance mats, it is easy for everyone to join in. This is a rapidly growing game genre.

2.3.3 “Serious Games” and educational games

The games often referred to as “Serious Games” spring from “The Serious Games Initiative” (2002), which focused on the use of video games in public sector administration and management. There is no simple definition of “Serious Games”, the genre includes various types of game where the main intention is not to entertain, but where interactiveness and entertainment are a means of achieving other types of goal. “Serious Games” have many similarities to educational games (“play and learn”), but are mainly directed towards a public outside the school sector. “Serious Games” include different game genres, use various different game technologies, and can be developed for different platforms. The old term “edutainment” is regarded today as a subgenre of “Serious Games”.

Educational games differ from “Serious Games” primarily by being aimed at the school system. There are several examples of experiments with video games as educational tools at different levels of the school. The Danish company Serious Games has developed the video game Global Conflicts: Palestine . Here the pupil plays a journalist covering the conflict in the Middle East. The game gives the pupil an opportunity to experience the complexity of the conflict while requiring him/her to be objective in meeting this situation. This ambitious project attempts to simulate issues from real life. The objective is to encourage pupils to learn by experience, solve problems and actively put together and adapt information and knowledge.

In collaboration with the Education Authority in Oslo, the company World Beside is developing a platform for game-based learning in maths and science subjects. This is a knowledge-based game concept where knowledge acquisition takes place in a virtual world. The game concept is an MMORPG, cf. 2.3.1. The first version focuses on natural science knowledge development in the upper secondary school but in future it will also be possible to use the game concept for areas such as languages, history, social studies, culture and economics.

2.3.4 Machinima

Machinima is a term for various types of film based on the graphics in video games. One can either use scenes created in the original game as a basis or modify the software on which the game is based. Game graphics can be used to create inexpensive animation which would otherwise have required expensive and complex software. The result can be films that resemble music videos, simple animation films, etc. Certain types of machinima also have artistic aspirations.

2.4 Video games – from idea to market

2.4.1 Introduction

Creating a video game is a complex process with many stages and different involved parties. During the period from the original idea until the game is on the market, programmers, graphic designers, musicians, salesmen, marketing experts and many other occupational groups are involved. In this chapter, the Ministry will give an account of the various stages of this process. Since technology is in many ways decisive during the development of a game, the description will take as its starting point the technological conditions for game development.

It is important to stress that this is a simplification of an extremely complex process. The purpose of this survey is to provide readers without special technological expertise with some insight into the development of video games.

2.4.2 The idea stage

A video game generally begins as an idea. This may be based on entirely new and original characters and stories or may be based on universes derived from other media, such as comics, film or TV. If the latter is the case, the right to use characters, names, etc. is purchased or licensed from those who own the copyright.

The game company may also develop original ideas. In the game industry, this is often referred to as “original IP”, where IP stands for Intellectual Property. In the game industry, developing one’s own IP can be extremely lucrative, but is also very resource-consuming. The Danish company IO Interactive has done this with great success with its Hitman series. This has resulted in their being able to sell the IP on to Hollywood, which has made films about the main character of the game. The Swedish company DICE has also developed an original IP with its Battlefield series, while the Norwegian Funcom has chosen to build its next game, Age of Conan , on an existing IP.

Right from the idea stage, the game developers must make a number of decisions, such as whether the game shall have multiplayer functionality, which platform the game shall be developed for, who the target group is, etc.

2.4.3 The design phase

The game designer plays a central role in the development of a game. The designers decide the plot of the game, the design of the characters and the environment in the game, the challenges to be faced by the player, how the player is to solve these challenges and what the reward shall be. In the case of the larger games, there are often several game designers with responsibility for different parts of the game, but one person is then the chief designer.

At this stage, the game’s manuscript is created. In collaboration with the game designer, game artists then create the visual expression of the game. A game artist draws characters, objects, surroundings, etc. These drawings later form the basis of the modelling, which is done on a computer. Detailed sketches and drawings make the modelling easier. It may also be appropriate to make a so-called shooting script for scenes in the game. The term “shooting script” is derived from the film industry, and involves presenting actions, sections, perspectives, etc. with drawings, like a kind of comic book. The scope of the visualization will vary according to the size of the game (and the budget).

The drawings produced at this stage are referred to as “concept art”, and are also used in the marketing of the game. Many game developers therefore place great emphasis on detailed and professionally executed concept art.

The illustration shows drawings of landscape, buildings and details of buildings from the video game Age of Conan. Hyborian adventures . The game has been developed by the Norwegian company Funcom.

Source Funcom

2.4.4 Modeller and animator

It is the job of the modeller, with the help of the illustrations created at the design stage, to recreate the characters, the objects and the environment digitally on a computer. This task will vary considerably depending on whether a two-dimensional (2D) or a three-dimensional (3D) game is being developed. 2D games consist of characters and objects in two dimensions, whereas 3D provides the game with depth. The great majority of games developed for consoles today are in 3D but, games for mobile telephones are still usually 2D.

For creating games in 2D, one uses standard drawing software, whereas a 3D-modeller must use more advanced software of the same kind as is used for producing animation films.

3D modelling is time-consuming work. First, a framework of so-called polygons shall be built. Then textures, such as skin and textiles, are added. Finally, lighting is added to the model. As well as being time-consuming, working in 3D is resource-consuming with a view to requirements regarding storage capacity and processing power.

When the model is finished, the animator starts work on it. The animator gives life to the object by creating movements. This is carried out with the same software that is used for the modelling. The animator makes the character run, walk, laugh, shoot, etc.

2.4.5 Sound and music

Sound is a major ingredient of a game. The latest generation of consoles enables games to be created with sound corresponding to that of cinema films (Dolby Digital). Production of sound effects is not influenced by the medium to be used. The process is the same for films and games.

Background noise is important for conveying the mood of the game. Games can also include sound effects to be activated by the player’s interaction with the environment. Examples of this are the sound of explosions, footsteps in the snow, glass breaking or someone swimming.

In addition to sound effects, dialogues and monologues in the game are read in by actors.

Music has become increasingly important in video games. Video games now have separate soundtracks that are released on CDs – as in the case of films. Both original music and music by other performers is used. During the launch of the game Halo 3, concerts were held all over the world, where music from the game was performed.

2.4.6 Programming

In the description so far, game development has been seen to have a number of similarities with the production of animation films. However, game development differs in the role played here by programming. Programming work is largely dependent on the platform for which the game is being developed. A number of different programming languages are used, the most usual of which is known as C++.

In simple terms, it is the programmer’s job to create the interaction between the content of the game (the characters, the environment, the objects, the music, the sounds, the dialogues) and the player’s actions. The interface between the real world and the digital world is therefore important. In the case of consoles, such an interface consists of a hand control. In the case of PCs, the interface will be the keyboard, mouse or joystick.

The basic principle of video game programming can be summarized as follows: If event A occurs, event B shall occur, and if A does not occur, C shall occur. An example of this may be that the character in the game falls in the water. Then, A will be “character in water” and B will be “activate the animation: swimming”. The alternative to falling in the water may be remaining on land, and then C will be “keep the animation: walk”.

As well as programming user-driven events in the game, the programmer can also define the conditions for how the other characters in the game shall behave. Characters not steered by the user, often referred to as NPCs (Non Player Characters), can be given so-called artificial intelligence. In recent years, considerable progress has been made in artificial intelligence. These are extremely resource-consuming processes, particularly when there are many characters in the game. Providing the NPCs with artificial intelligence is important for preventing them from appearing “dumb”.

Source Unreal technologies

2.4.7 Game engines

As the game industry has matured, the so-called game engines have appeared on the scene. The game engine is used as a basis for creating the game and, in practice, when a game engine is used, much of the programming work has already been done. There is therefore no need for the game developers to start completely afresh when creating a new game.

The advantage of game engines is that they can considerably reduce development costs by reducing the development time. The greatest disadvantage is that game engines do not give the developers full creative freedom. The developers are forced into a system set up by other developers. This has resulted in some game developers only using parts of a game engine while developing most of the game themselves.

One of the most used game engines is Unreal Engine. This is a powerful product that provides game developers with a set of tools for developing games. Unreal Engine contains technology for handling modelling, animation, programming and sound effects. The licence costs vary, but are in the region of USD 700 000 (single payment).

There are also game engines with low licence costs. One of the most well-known game engines among independent game developers is TorqueGame Engine. A licence for this product costs USD 150–750.

2.4.8 Testing

As mentioned above, the programming is carried out in a programming language, resulting in source code. The game may contain several million lines of code. It is therefore not surprising that there may be errors in the code so that things sometimes go wrong when running the game. The errors may lead to unforeseen events, or to the game “crashing”. It is therefore important to have a game tested by players before launching it officially.

Such testers are referred to as beta testers. Depending on the size of the game, it may be appropriate to use several thousand beta testers. In April 2007, when Funcom invited people to beta test its new online game Age of Conan , the company received 100 000 applications from players who wanted to test the game.

The task of the beta tester is to play the game and report any errors and abnormal events that occur. By having a large beta test group, the developer increases the probability that the game will contain only a minimum of errors when it is launched. If errors are detected after the launch, the game developer usually provides a program that corrects the errors.

2.4.9 Launch

The strategy for the launch of video games has become increasingly important, since the competition has become keener. The major game companies invest an increasing amount of money on the launch, and one can see clear similarities to the film industry. Shops stay open in the middle of the night for some launches, celebrities are used in marketing campaigns, concerts and competitions are held, and there is often considerable pressure on the media during a launch.

Online games have much a longer lifetime than other types of game. This stems from the fact that in online games the story often has no beginning or ending. The game develops while one plays it, and other players have a considerable influence on what happens. Moreover, extension packages for the game are often launched. For example, World of Warcraft , the world’s most popular online game, was launched in time for Christmas 2004, but receives considerable attention every time such an extension package is released.

2.5 Technological platforms for video games

The term “platform” is used in connection with games to refer to the basic technology required to play or develop a video game. “Platform” may refer both to computers and peripherals (hardware) and to various types of programs and operating systems (software).

2.5.1 Game consoles

A game console is a computer specifically developed for video games. The game console is connected to an external screen, usually a television. There are also hand-held consoles with built-in screens.

The major companies, Microsoft, Sony and Nintendo have in practice complete control of the console market. They have all launched their own versions of the so-called next-generation consoles, respectively Xbox360, PlayStation3 and Wii. Among the hand-held consoles, Nintendo is the market leader with the machines Gameboy and Nintendo DS. Sony also controls part of the market with its PlayStation Portable (PSP).

A console game developer must decide which console the game is to be produced for. Since consoles and hand-held units have a different type of hardware from the PC (with the exception of Xbox), the programming must be done on a computer with the same type of hardware as the console concerned. Sony, Microsoft and Nintendo all hire out or sell such equipment with the necessary software when the developers are granted a licence to develop games for their console (generally referred to as a Developer Kit). The same applies to hand-held consoles.

It is extremely difficult to be granted a licence to develop console games. The console manufacturers require developers to have extensive experience of game development. In some cases, Nintendo requires developers to have developed games for Nintendo previously. Licences for Developer Kits cost several thousand dollars. This is expensive for developers since they generally require several licences.

PlayStation3 (PS3) is regarded as the most demanding game console to develop games for. This has been a challenge for Sony, since the success of PS3 is entirely dependent on the development of good games for the console.

Microsoft’s Xbox360 has an advantage in that development for this system corresponds to the development of Windows-based games (PC). This means that the game developer can release the game both for the PC and Xbox360 without additional costs, thus increasing the market.

2.5.2 PC games

There are a number of similarities between developing games for the PC or Mac and for consoles. The biggest difference is that PC developers do not need to purchase a licence for Developer Kit from the console manufacturer. The initial obstacles for game development for the PC are therefore much smaller than for consoles, which makes it easier for small companies to develop games for this platform.

However, licensing of game engines is widespread among PC game developers.

The small initial obstacles combined with a large range of development tools has led to a major growth in the number of independent game developers and hobby developers. “Modding” is a concept that has emerged as a result of this. Modding is modification of games by players when the source code has been made public. The very popular game CounterStrike started as a hobby project when two university students modified the Half Life game.

Developers of PC games face major challenges because the games are not developed for a single system. By this is meant that there are a number of different hardware suppliers in the PC segment. By way of comparison, game developers for PS3 have no need to take into consideration that the player can use different types of hardware. This challenge can be met by developing games for a platform that is system-independent. Two examples of system-independent platforms are Java and Shockwave.

2.5.3 Online games

Games that can be played over the Internet are defined as online games. Online games exist both for the PC and for consoles. There are three main categories of online games. The first two categories are very similar: Multiplayer games, where two or more players can play at the same time, and Massively Multiplayer Online (MMO) games, which differ from multiplayer games in that several thousand players can play at the same time. The third category of online games is browser-based games, i.e. games played in browsers such as Internet Explorer, Mozilla Firefox and Opera.

In the case of the first two categories, it is usual that the game is purchased on a physical medium (CD-ROM or DVD-ROM). It is also possible to purchase some online games via the Internet, but purchase over the counter is still the most usual. This particularly applies to major titles, such as World of Warcraft .

When one has purchased the game, one must register online and create an account in order to be able to play. As a rule, a time-limited subscription (usually one month) is included when you buy the game. If you want to continue playing for longer than this, you must pay extra. A number of the major online games charge players approximately 15 US dollars per month.

The PC platform has been the market leader in the online segment. The console segment has also joined the online bandwagon. Both Microsoft and Sony provide online services enabling players to play against each other (XboxLive and PlayStationNetwork).

2.5.4 Mobile games

A number of developers produce games for mobile telephones. When developing a game, the developer must take into consideration the different types of telephone – a game produced for one type of telephone can often not be played on another. However, mobile telephone games are relatively cheap to develop.

The games are developed for different operating systems and platforms. The two most popular operating systems are Symbian OS and Windows Mobile. Symbian OS is owned by the mobile telephone manufacturers, of which Nokia has the largest shareholding. Sixty-seven per cent of mobile telephones sold in 2006 had Symbian OS. Windows Mobile is the second most popular operating system for mobile telephones with a market share in 2006 of 15 per cent. The operating system is also available for use by Pocket PC and Portable Media Centers such as Creative Zen.

In addition to the operating system, most new telephones today also have technological platforms that shall in theory be independent of the operating system. This means that the programmer can create games based on these platforms without focusing on the operating system itself. It has nevertheless proved necessary for the programmer to test the game in the various telephones in order to ensure compatibility. This increases development costs. The two most relevant platforms in this category are Flash and Java.

There are a number of ways of installing the games in mobile telephones: by loading the game via a PC, from another mobile telephone via Bluetooth or an infra-red connection, by downloading the game directly to the mobile telephone by sending an SMS message to a specific telephone number or by using the mobile telephone’s built-in browser.

2.5.5 Peripherals

Peripherals are not a separate platform, but an element that the developers must take into consideration when creating a game. By peripherals is meant various types of control or steering mechanism that can be connected to the PC or game console. The oldest example is perhaps the joystick, which could be connected to a PC in order to control a game that would otherwise have been controlled by means of a keyboard or mouse. Very advanced peripherals have now become available: separate steering wheels and seats for car games, pistols for shooting games, etc.

In recent years, it has become very popular to develop games based on peripherals. Dance mats can be connected to PlayStation or Xbox, simulated guitars are used in the Guitar Hero game and microphones are used in SingStar, a game that has sold extremely well in Norway and has been released in a number of editions.

2.6 Summary

In this chapter, the Ministry has provided a description of the video game medium from the perspective of history, game genres, production and technology. Video games emerged as a mass medium in the 1970s, and up to the present day have developed to become a major entertainment industry. During this period, the game medium has become increasingly advanced in pace with technological developments. Production and distribution of games and game consoles is dominated by large international stakeholders.

Like films and other media, video games have developed a genre system based on the games’ content and functionality. This genre system is relatively stable. A major genre during recent years has been role-playing games via the Internet.

Development of video games is a technologically and artistically demanding process, involving a number of different professional fields, from game designers, game artists, modellers, animators, musicians and programmers to testers and marketing experts.

Video games are developed for different technological platforms. The most important of these are the PC, the various consoles, online, and mobile telephones.